Independent Indias economy is completing a 75-year-long journey. It has been a remarkable one too. Agricultural production has grown considerably and stabilised. We have not faced food shortages for over half a century. From its import-dependent status, Indian industry has transformed itself into one with a highly diversified product mix. Services produced here no longer mean just an Ayurvedic massage or the rope trick but high-end software solutions delivered onsite to the leading corporations of the world by young Indian engineers. Clearly, the economy has modernised in some significant ways.
However, heart-warming as these achievements may be, after seventy-five years Indias economic journey must be gauged by the goal that was set at its beginning. I begin this book by arguing that the goal of Indian independence, as visualised by its founders, is best reflected in Nehrus observation that India was embarking on a journey to end poverty and ignorance and disease, and the inequality of opportunity.
As these outcomes may be expected to be partly dependent on the economic progress made, this is how I have narrated the story of Indias economic journey over these nearly seventy-five years. I end this book with an evaluation of the extent to which political democracy, embraced wholeheartedly in 1947 and the procedures of which have been retained, has succeeded in delivering the goal envisaged for it.
The ending of colonialism and the adoption of political democracy did usher in an important freedom to Indians. They were no longer constrained by a foreign power and, at least in principle, were free of arbitrary rule. But surely the founders of India had more in mind for their compatriots. Actually, it is possible to argue that when Nehru spoke about ending poverty and ignorance and disease and the inequality of opportunity, he had in mind the need to endow Indians with the capability that would enable them to lead a full life.
There is also far greater undernourishment in the country and greater illiteracy. The only metric by which the Indian population is not far from the rest of the world is life expectancy. These data together imply that while Indians live almost as long as everyone else on the planet, a sizeable section of them lead a life of deprivation.
In a significant contrast, poverty, illiteracy and undernourishment have been almost eliminated in China. On every one of the indicators in the table, China does better than the world and India does worse than China. In terms of the most basic indicators of development, India has very far to go to reach the global standard.
The point of comparisons such as the one just made is to assess the gap that may exist between countries on the indicators of interest. This does involve the assumption that the benchmark used is attainable by all the countries included in the exercise.
This is a flawed understanding of the reasons for Indias condition. Her relatively poor performance on standard human development indicators can be understood by reference to public policy. In my discussion of the mortality from Covid-19, I have pointed out that the death rate across India can be explained in terms of the varying investment in a public health system, measured by the share of GDP that is devoted to public expenditure on health.
As health is a state subject in India, the analysis is based on the expenditures of state governments. This shows some of them spending less on health than they do on the police. The state of Maharashtra stands out as one that spends less than 0.5 per cent of its GDP on a public health system. During the first wave of Covid-19 it was the site of the worst form of the health crisis in India, with overflowing hospitals, limited health personnel, shortage of ventilators and oxygen and with the highest death rate among the states of India at that stage of the pandemic. No more evidence is needed to confirm the close relation between health outcomes and public policy.
As evidence on the connection between health outcomes and public policy appears in this book, I will here confine myself to the case of education. We can see the level of public spending on education in India and its consequences. Public expenditure on education as a share of GDP is lower in India than in every other regional grouping of the world. Commensurately, the outcomes in terms of literacy and schooling are, mostly, worse.
As spending here is lower than even that in sub-Saharan Africa, a region of the world with lower per capita income, it cannot be said that low spending on education reflects the capacity to spend. For India, it appears to have been a matter of priorities in public policy. Its consequence has been persisting illiteracy.
Interestingly, we find that public expenditure on education is much higher in the United States, a country committed to free market capitalism, while Indias Constitution declares the country a socialist republic. As seen in the table, the former socialist republics of Europe and Central Asia spend substantially more on health and education than India does, and this is reflected in the superior human development indicators in these countries.
It is difficult not to conclude that there is a class bias in this pattern of expenditure as public education is availed of only by the poorer classes. Whatever the underlying reason, it could not have been without wider-ranging consequences for the country. Indias children may not be receiving the attention they need at the time when they need it most that is, while at school. In any case, Indias poor performance on health and education can be understood in terms of the meagre public outlays on these foundational inputs into the capability of a population. It is the nature of its public policy alone that accounts for Indias disappointing human development record.
Excerpted with permission from Indias Economy From Nehru To Modi: A Brief History, Pulapre Balakrishnan, Permanent Black in collaboration with Ashoka University.
Go here to see the original:
- Progress Lighting - Home - December 22nd, 2016 [December 22nd, 2016]
- Home - Progress Lighting Outlet - Authorized Progress Dealer - January 13th, 2017 [January 13th, 2017]
- What does progress mean? - Definitions.net - January 13th, 2017 [January 13th, 2017]
- Progress Fire Company Harrisburg, PA - January 13th, 2017 [January 13th, 2017]
- Homepage Center for American Progress - January 13th, 2017 [January 13th, 2017]
- Progress being made on possible grocery store co-op in Winston-Salem - myfox8.com - February 7th, 2017 [February 7th, 2017]
- Nioh Review-in-Progress: FromSoftware's Formula Evolved - Shacknews - February 7th, 2017 [February 7th, 2017]
- Deutsche Bundesbank Cites Progress With Blockchain-Based Settlement - CryptoCoinsNews - February 7th, 2017 [February 7th, 2017]
- IMF: Greece's debts are still unsustainable despite progress - The Seattle Times - February 7th, 2017 [February 7th, 2017]
- Think Progress Editor Mocks Audi for Equal Pay Super Bowl Ad - Breitbart News - February 7th, 2017 [February 7th, 2017]
- Progress apparent on defense - Pittsburgh Steelers - Steelers.com - February 7th, 2017 [February 7th, 2017]
- IMF: Greece's Debts are Still Unsustainable, Despite Progress - Voice of America - February 7th, 2017 [February 7th, 2017]
- Can US disrupter-in-chief trigger some progress? - Jerusalem Post Israel News - February 7th, 2017 [February 7th, 2017]
- The Cost of Progress - Slate Magazine - February 7th, 2017 [February 7th, 2017]
- Cavaliers' pitching rotation a work in progress | Cavalier Insider ... - The Daily Progress - February 8th, 2017 [February 8th, 2017]
- High schoolers create 'zines for progress' with WolfsonianFIU - FIU News - February 8th, 2017 [February 8th, 2017]
- Cries of 'dictator' show Pope Francis is making progress - Crux: Covering all things Catholic - February 8th, 2017 [February 8th, 2017]
- Officials: City is making progress in effort to address opioid crisis - The Union Leader - February 8th, 2017 [February 8th, 2017]
- IN OUR VIEW: Work Ready in Progress for Carter - The Independent - February 8th, 2017 [February 8th, 2017]
- BP's Earnings Keep Showing Progress, Even if the Headline Results Don't Say So - Motley Fool - February 8th, 2017 [February 8th, 2017]
- Women's Progress in the Boardroom Took a Hit in 2016 - Inc.com - February 9th, 2017 [February 9th, 2017]
- Blight Elimination Progress, Uplifting - MyWabashValley - February 9th, 2017 [February 9th, 2017]
- Rauner 'heartened' by progress in Springfield - Bloomington Pantagraph - February 9th, 2017 [February 9th, 2017]
- David Johnson showed off the insane progress he's making in rehab from his knee injury - USA TODAY - February 9th, 2017 [February 9th, 2017]
- Through the looking glass: Tower view showcases progress on Amazon's unique biospheres - GeekWire - February 9th, 2017 [February 9th, 2017]
- Britney Spears Says Niece Maddie Is 'Making Progress' After ATV Accident: 'Let's All Keep Praying' - PEOPLE.com - February 9th, 2017 [February 9th, 2017]
- Progress on vet's Mustang to be unveiled - Indianapolis Star - February 9th, 2017 [February 9th, 2017]
- Evgeni Malkin making 'progress,' could return Saturday in Arizona - Pittsburgh Post-Gazette - February 9th, 2017 [February 9th, 2017]
- Forecasters See Slow Progress in Labor-Market Measures Favored by Trump Administration - Wall Street Journal - February 9th, 2017 [February 9th, 2017]
- 'Paper boys' were the lifeblood of The Daily Progress - The Daily Progress - February 10th, 2017 [February 10th, 2017]
- Cliffs Natural Resources Is Showing a Lot of Progress on Its Return to Profitability - Motley Fool - February 10th, 2017 [February 10th, 2017]
- ATA says states' telemedicine progress a mixed bag ... - FierceHealthcare - February 10th, 2017 [February 10th, 2017]
- Seltzer's Notebook | Colangelo Encouraged by Sixers' Progress - Sixers.com - February 10th, 2017 [February 10th, 2017]
- The Trump administration can't entirely roll back progress on climate change here's why - Washington Post - February 10th, 2017 [February 10th, 2017]
- Colts position review: OL showed legit progress, but work remains - Indianapolis Star - February 10th, 2017 [February 10th, 2017]
- Egyptian Economy Making Slow, Tentative Progress - Voice of America - February 10th, 2017 [February 10th, 2017]
- ATA: States show mixed progress with telemedicine | Healthcare Dive - Healthcare Dive - February 11th, 2017 [February 11th, 2017]
- Louisville City notes: McCabe making progress - The Courier-Journal - February 11th, 2017 [February 11th, 2017]
- Jeremy Lin: Progress but no timetable - NetsDaily - February 11th, 2017 [February 11th, 2017]
- Marginal progress for Turkish-backed forces in north Syria - LA Daily News - February 11th, 2017 [February 11th, 2017]
- Jimmy Cheek: UT chancellor appreciative of hard work, progress on journey - Knoxville News Sentinel - February 12th, 2017 [February 12th, 2017]
- Syria Regional Crisis 2016 Emergency Appeal - Progress Report - Reliefweb - February 12th, 2017 [February 12th, 2017]
- CWLP officials: Bailout repayment would set back progress - The State Journal-Register - February 12th, 2017 [February 12th, 2017]
- Pistons' Johnson making halting but definite progress - The Detroit News - February 12th, 2017 [February 12th, 2017]
- Clairton works: Real progress is coming to the former steel town - Pittsburgh Post-Gazette - February 12th, 2017 [February 12th, 2017]
- The Democrats' Strategy: Hindering Progress For Partisan Politics - Daily Caller - February 13th, 2017 [February 13th, 2017]
- The surprising progress stoppers on the Dallas Cowboys defensive line - Cowboys Wire - February 13th, 2017 [February 13th, 2017]
- Gender Progress in Ballet - Huffington Post - February 13th, 2017 [February 13th, 2017]
- Foyt pleased with progress, regrets lack of time - Motorsport.com, Edition: Global - February 13th, 2017 [February 13th, 2017]
- Progress Made, but Threat Lingers at California's Oroville Dam - Wall Street Journal - February 13th, 2017 [February 13th, 2017]
- Adele, Beyonc, and the Grammys' Fear of Progress - The Atlantic - February 13th, 2017 [February 13th, 2017]
- North Korea Claims Progress on Long-Range Goal With Missile Test - New York Times - February 13th, 2017 [February 13th, 2017]
- How Travel Bans Can Impede America's Progress - Forbes - Forbes - February 13th, 2017 [February 13th, 2017]
- Jeff Sessions' appointment threatens decades of civil rights progress - The Hill (blog) - February 14th, 2017 [February 14th, 2017]
- Ionis Earns $75M Milestone from Bayer for Progress of Antisense Drug Program - Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News (press release) - February 14th, 2017 [February 14th, 2017]
- Guilford Schools annual report shows mixed results on progress - Greensboro News & Record (blog) - February 14th, 2017 [February 14th, 2017]
- Sniper Elite 4 review in progress - PC Gamer - February 14th, 2017 [February 14th, 2017]
- For Honor Review In Progress - GameSpot - February 14th, 2017 [February 14th, 2017]
- China's military progress challenges Western dominance, says IISS - Deutsche Welle - February 15th, 2017 [February 15th, 2017]
- PFW in Progress Recap 2/14: Patriots Offseason Outlook | New ... - Patriots.com - February 15th, 2017 [February 15th, 2017]
- Daily Progress, chamber establish regional business Hall of Fame - The Daily Progress - February 15th, 2017 [February 15th, 2017]
- Huntsville-based Progress Bank to acquire Birmingham's First Partners Bank - Birmingham Business Journal - February 15th, 2017 [February 15th, 2017]
- City, UF sign partnership for progress - Gainesville Sun - February 15th, 2017 [February 15th, 2017]
- California officials lift evacuation order for 200000 threatened by damaged dam - CBS News - February 15th, 2017 [February 15th, 2017]
- 5G progress at Ericsson could help enterprises work worldwide - Computerworld - February 16th, 2017 [February 16th, 2017]
- Officials making 'great progress' on California dam repairs, remind residents to stay vigilant - Fox News - February 16th, 2017 [February 16th, 2017]
- Halo Wars 2 Review in Progress - IGN - February 16th, 2017 [February 16th, 2017]
- CUGNON: Forward progress - Yale Daily News (blog) - February 16th, 2017 [February 16th, 2017]
- F-35 Program Makes Significant, Solid Progress, Official Says - Department of Defense - February 16th, 2017 [February 16th, 2017]
- Lenovo's data center ambitions remain work in progress following Q3 results - ZDNet - February 16th, 2017 [February 16th, 2017]
- PFW in Progress Recap 2/16: Free Agency and Potential Patriots - Patriots.com - February 16th, 2017 [February 16th, 2017]
- S&P 500: 'Blow-off' Phase in Progress - DailyFX - February 16th, 2017 [February 16th, 2017]
- Combine invites are another sign of progress at Michigan - Big Ten ... - ESPN (blog) - February 16th, 2017 [February 16th, 2017]
- Halo Wars 2 review in progress - PC Gamer - February 17th, 2017 [February 17th, 2017]
- 'Hero' film produced just for Charlottesville featured the mayor, The Daily Progress - The Daily Progress - February 17th, 2017 [February 17th, 2017]
- Republicans' health care overhaul still a work in progress - Press Herald - February 17th, 2017 [February 17th, 2017]
- Trump Boasts Of 'Incredible Progress' In 4 Weeks Of Presidency - NPR - February 17th, 2017 [February 17th, 2017]
- Donald Trump touts promise progress at press conference - PolitiFact - February 17th, 2017 [February 17th, 2017]
- Mild winter helping crews make significant progress on East End Connector - WRAL.com - February 18th, 2017 [February 18th, 2017]
- Committee updates Legislature on precinct consolidation progress - Chicago Tribune - February 18th, 2017 [February 18th, 2017]