What really interested the earliest rabbis was the collection and organization of the so-called oral law, the traditions that had already been gathering about the text of the Torah for centuries. This was the next layer, the next level of sediment in the mounting deposit of what would come to be modern rabbinic Judaism. It culminated in the completion of the Mishnah, around the year 200 A.D. This important text, collected and edited by the illustrious Rabbi Judah the Prince, is one of the earliest documents of what can properly be called Judaism in the modern sense. It remains one of Judaisms greatest classics and, after the Bible itself, is the foundation of the Jewish religion. The term mishnah comes from a Hebrew word meaning to repeat or to study, which points to the way in which it was originally studiedby memorization. The Mishnah is organized by topics and comprises sixty-two sections known as tractates. These tractates are divided into six principal parts, dealing with (1) agriculture, and also the portions of various crops that are to be set aside for the temple, the priests, and Israels poor; (2) sabbaths and festivals; (3) women, property, marriage, and divorce; (4) civil and criminal law, including torts and the law of witnesses; (5) conduct of the cult or sacrificial liturgy of the temple; and (6) the preservation of purity in the temple and, under certain specific circumstances, in the home. Noteworthy is the continuing emphasis on the temple. At least two of the six principal parts of the Mishnah deal with that building, which isnt surprising since much of the oral law had probably begun to take shape during the period when it was still standing. But its impressive that successive generations of Jews have continued to study the Mishnah, including the substantial portions of it that would train them to conduct the sacrifices and other rites of the temple should it ever return. And it must be assumed that, at the early time when the Mishnah was compiled, the hope that the temple would soon be rebuilt still burned bright in the hearts of many scattered Jews. The lack of a temple, they were certain, would only be temporary.
Indeed, for a brief period in the fourth century, the Roman emperor Julian (360-63)known to Christian sources as Julian the Apostate but in Jewish tradition under the more neutral nickname of Julian the Helleneraised hopes for the Jews of Palestine and the rest of the empire. Quite understandably unimpressed by the behavior of his supposedly Christian imperial family, which included murders and cruelties of astonishing variety, Julian had renounced Christianity. A highly intelligent man, he had accepted in its stead a philosophical version of the old Greek religion and had set out to reduce the power of the Christian church and its bishops. As part of his policy, he announced in 362 that he would sponsor the rebuilding of Holy Jerusalem, including its temple. By restoring the Jews to their ancient capital and by reestablishing their great shrine, Julian knew, he would score a major propaganda victory against the Christian church, which had based much of its propaganda on the destruction of Jerusalem as a sign of Gods curse upon the Jewish people and the transfer of the divine blessing to the Christians.[1] He was also motivated, it seems, by genuine sympathy with Jewish doctrine and by a deep interest in religious ritual generally. The Christian reaction to Julians plans was, predictably, furious and apparently violent. Thus, when Christian legends report miraculous fireballs that destroyed everything the Jews had built on the temple mount, we can probably infer from this that pious arsonists set fire to the construction site. And when Julian was stabbed to death by a devout Christian Arab soldier among his troops, the dream of a restored Jewish temple died with him.
There still existed a large Jewish colony in Mesopotamia, in the area to which the Jews had been carried off during the so-called Babylonian captivity. As already mentioned, the captives had prospered there, and most of them had chosen to remain in comfortable exile even when the road to return was entirely open. They enjoyed a flourishing intellectual life and maintained relatively close contact with their fellow-believers in and around Palestine. Soon, the Mishnah reached them there. But the rabbis didnt, at first, occupy the first rank among Babylonian Jewry. Surprisingly enough, these exiles enjoyed a kind of quasi-political autonomy later than the Jews of Palestine did. For a time, their leader, who was known as the exilarch, functioned as a kind of princehe claimed to be descended from the very King Zedekiah who had been carried away into captivity just after Lehis departure from Jerusalem in the sixth century B.C.and served as a high official in the Parthian state that ruled the area. However, when the fervidly Zoroastrian Sasanian Dynasty came to power early in the third century, the privileged role and the political powers of the exilarch were curtailed. But as the political elite of Babylonian Jewry lost power and prestige, the influence of the rabbis expanded to fill the vacuum. Thus, eventually, just as in Palestine, the scholars took over. Jesus words, spoken more than two centuries before, were now truer than ever: The scribes and the Pharisees, he had said, sit in Moses seat.[2]
Given the new Jewish focus on the writing of commentaries, its hardly surprising that scholars immediately began to comment upon the Mishnah. Both the rabbis of Palestine and the rabbinic academies of Mesopotamia thus produced editions of what is known as the Talmud. (The name comes from a Hebrew word meaning study, or learning.) This represents the third layer of Judaism as we know it. The Talmud grew out of lectures and discussions on the Mishnah, which was the core of the curriculum. The Jerusalem Talmud, or Talmud of the West, was complete by the end of the fourth century A.D. Most of the work on it was actually done in the city of Tiberias, on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. It represents the thought and the decisions of the Palestinian rabbis and scholars during the two centuries that had passed since the compiling of the Mishnah. In fact, although presented in the form of a commentary, it actually goes beyond the Mishnah and includes material on issues the Mishnah had not touched at all. Work on the Babylonian Talmud took somewhat longer and was finished a century later. Although the Babylonian is the more detailed of the two Talmuds, both are in substantial agreement. Both are mostly in Hebrew, with passages in western Aramaic and a sprinkling of Greek loan words in the Jerusalem Talmud, and passages in eastern Aramaic and a few Persian loan words in the Babylonian Talmud. Together, they form an admirable foundation for a unified body of religious law and practice.
[1] For some interestingly similar modern views on the matter, see Thomas L. Friedman, From Beirut to Jerusalem (New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1989), 430-31.
[2] Matthew 23:2.
Posted from Park City, Utah
Link:
Revision 1.13 The Mishnah and the Talmuds | Dan Peterson - Patheos
- How to beat the virus? It's in the Talmud - Jewish News - July 12th, 2020 [July 12th, 2020]
- How Two-and-a-Half Tribes Ended Up Over the Jordan - Chabad.org - July 13th, 2020 [July 13th, 2020]
- Don't hide from the sins of St. Louis - America Magazine - July 13th, 2020 [July 13th, 2020]
- In Defense of King Louis IX | Thomas F. Madden - First Things - July 13th, 2020 [July 13th, 2020]
- Jesus in the Talmud - Wikipedia - July 13th, 2020 [July 13th, 2020]
- Learning From the Past: Reckless Jewish Kings Through the Ages - Algemeiner - July 14th, 2020 [July 14th, 2020]
- The Oral Law -Talmud & Mishna - Jewish Virtual Library - July 14th, 2020 [July 14th, 2020]
- The huppah - a beloved object of Jewish art - The Jerusalem Post - July 14th, 2020 [July 14th, 2020]
- Fast of the 17th of Tammuz: Times and customs - The Jerusalem Post - July 14th, 2020 [July 14th, 2020]
- Peter Beinart's one state solution sounds so perfect it's practically utopian - Haaretz - July 14th, 2020 [July 14th, 2020]
- No One Will Change Your Life Like a Teacher - Algemeiner - July 14th, 2020 [July 14th, 2020]
- 11 Thoughts and Sayings of Rav Simcha Zissel Ziv Broide the Alter of Kelm - Yeshiva World News - July 14th, 2020 [July 14th, 2020]
- Dozens of Jewish graves and tombstones desecrated in the Jewish cemetery in Worms, one of the oldest in Europe - European Jewish Press - July 14th, 2020 [July 14th, 2020]
- Death to Jews, swastikas drawn on gravestones in southern France - Forward - July 17th, 2020 [July 17th, 2020]
- Barbra Streisand classic Yentl returns to big screen at The Drive In - Jewish News - July 17th, 2020 [July 17th, 2020]
- Not all the statues need to come down - Forward - July 17th, 2020 [July 17th, 2020]
- Nick Cannon and several other Black celebrities attended Farrakhans July 4 speech - Forward - July 17th, 2020 [July 17th, 2020]
- Allford: Achoo! Sneezing through the centuries - The Kingston Whig-Standard - July 18th, 2020 [July 18th, 2020]
- Q & A: Making Up For What We Missed (Part XIII) - The Jewish Press - JewishPress.com - July 18th, 2020 [July 18th, 2020]
- The seed that is sown | Community And Lifestyles - atchisonglobenow.com - July 18th, 2020 [July 18th, 2020]
- The End of Anti-Semitism - Aish - July 18th, 2020 [July 18th, 2020]
- Eicha - the question that reverberates throughout history - The Jerusalem Post - July 18th, 2020 [July 18th, 2020]
- A Traditional Jewish Approach to the Problem of Evil - My Jewish Learning - July 19th, 2020 [July 19th, 2020]
- My article was controversial - and I talked to the haters - Forward - July 19th, 2020 [July 19th, 2020]
- Guestwords: Let There Be Laughter - East Hampton Star - July 19th, 2020 [July 19th, 2020]
- The Terrifying Feeling of Being Alone in the World - Aish - July 19th, 2020 [July 19th, 2020]
- Faith Leaders Demand Action From New York City's Mayor to Ensure Safe Reentry for Those Leaving Rikers Island During COVID-19 Pandemic - Press Release... - July 21st, 2020 [July 21st, 2020]
- What's the truth behind wearing face masks? - The Jerusalem Post - July 21st, 2020 [July 21st, 2020]
- 12 Facts Every Jew Should Know About the 9 Days - Chabad.org - July 21st, 2020 [July 21st, 2020]
- Musings of a rabbi in the period of pandemic - Jewish News - July 21st, 2020 [July 21st, 2020]
- The Kingly Roots of Kitchri: Lentils With Love - Jewish Journal - July 21st, 2020 [July 21st, 2020]
- We've got what it takes to endure these difficult days J. - The Jewish News of Northern California - July 21st, 2020 [July 21st, 2020]
- Learn About the Holy Temple in Depth - Texts and Classes Describing the Holy Temple - Chabad.org - July 21st, 2020 [July 21st, 2020]
- Nation of Islam posts Farrakhans call for Jews to ditch the Talmud & be saved amid Nick Cannon antisemitism debacle - RT - July 21st, 2020 [July 21st, 2020]
- Are Reports Of The Persecution Of Yemenite Jews Completely False? - Yeshiva World News - July 23rd, 2020 [July 23rd, 2020]
- There's space in the Jewish community for queer people. I just had to find it. - JTA News - Jewish Telegraphic Agency - July 23rd, 2020 [July 23rd, 2020]
- Glimpsing The Beis HaMikdash - The Jewish Press - JewishPress.com - July 23rd, 2020 [July 23rd, 2020]
- Who Wrote the Bible? - History - July 23rd, 2020 [July 23rd, 2020]
- Judaism, baseball, and the drive for normal - The Jewish Standard - July 23rd, 2020 [July 23rd, 2020]
- Digital Archive Takes Talmudic Approach to Americas Founding Texts - Jewish Week - July 25th, 2020 [July 25th, 2020]
- Hope is a power you don't have to relinquish - St. Louis Jewish Light - July 25th, 2020 [July 25th, 2020]
- In the Talmud, God admits Hes wrong. Theres a lesson there about free speech. - Forward - July 25th, 2020 [July 25th, 2020]
- The Pope who Printed the Talmud - Aish - July 25th, 2020 [July 25th, 2020]
- Love, community, mysticism: The intrigue and observance of Tu B'Av - thejewishchronicle.net - July 29th, 2020 [July 29th, 2020]
- A burning house - A universal lesson | Shahar Azani | The Blogs - The Times of Israel - July 29th, 2020 [July 29th, 2020]
- Talmud's solution to the coronavirus dilemma: Save lives, or the economy? - Haaretz - July 29th, 2020 [July 29th, 2020]
- Talmud and Midrash | Judaism | Britannica - July 29th, 2020 [July 29th, 2020]
- What is the Talmud? Biblical Meaning & Definition - July 29th, 2020 [July 29th, 2020]
- Redeeming Relevance: When Moshe Threw a Book Across the Classroom - The Jewish Press - JewishPress.com - July 31st, 2020 [July 31st, 2020]
- One for Israel exposes abusive teachings of rabbis, explains that Jesus loves and esteems women [videos] - Patheos - July 31st, 2020 [July 31st, 2020]
- The indomitable spirit of the Jewish people - The story of Yavne - The Jerusalem Post - July 31st, 2020 [July 31st, 2020]
- Preparing for Tisha B'Av During a World Pandemic - A 25-hour period of fasting and reflection begins on Wednesday night, July 29 - Chabad.org - July 31st, 2020 [July 31st, 2020]
- Even More Harm Than We Think - The Jewish Press - JewishPress.com - August 4th, 2020 [August 4th, 2020]
- Listen: Longtom on electro-shock treatment for Great Whites; Chas Smith continues his outspoken advocacy for kicking dogs. You see a good thick dog,... - August 4th, 2020 [August 4th, 2020]
- The Real Reason the Beit HaMikdash Was Destroyed - The Jewish Voice - August 4th, 2020 [August 4th, 2020]
- Why Is the Ketubah Written in Aramaic? - Chabad.org - August 4th, 2020 [August 4th, 2020]
- In a pickle, Seth Rogen tells Haaretz what he really thinks about Israel and white supremacist Trump - Haaretz - August 6th, 2020 [August 6th, 2020]
- Remembering The Wall (Part II) - The Jewish Press - JewishPress.com - August 7th, 2020 [August 7th, 2020]
- Tales Told to Tevye - The New Yorker - August 7th, 2020 [August 7th, 2020]
- Parashat Ekev: A different kind of theology - The Jerusalem Post - August 7th, 2020 [August 7th, 2020]
- First lesbian woman to be appointed to Tel Aviv's religious council - The Jerusalem Post - August 7th, 2020 [August 7th, 2020]
- Our community together apart - The Australian Jewish News - August 7th, 2020 [August 7th, 2020]
- Tyranny, loss and leadership: What's on MIFF's menu - The Age - August 7th, 2020 [August 7th, 2020]
- Even though your heart may grow haughty - The Jewish Star - August 7th, 2020 [August 7th, 2020]
- Adin Steinsaltz, Groundbreaking Talmud Translator, Dies - The New York Times - August 8th, 2020 [August 8th, 2020]
- A Personal Relationship With God Is Reachable if We Believe in It - Algemeiner - August 10th, 2020 [August 10th, 2020]
- Berachos: The Key To Fearing Hashem - The Jewish Press - JewishPress.com - August 10th, 2020 [August 10th, 2020]
- Delaware to require teaching of the Holocaust, genocide - Forward - August 10th, 2020 [August 10th, 2020]
- Yeshiva Education - The Best of Both (OPINION) - BKLYNER - BKLYNER - August 10th, 2020 [August 10th, 2020]
- Cherish the Small Comforts that Bring Your Joy in an Unsettled World - Jewish Journal - August 10th, 2020 [August 10th, 2020]
- Mind Over Milkshakes - The Jewish Press - JewishPress.com - August 10th, 2020 [August 10th, 2020]
- Why Is the Ketubah Written in Aramaic? - Questions & Answers - Chabad.org - August 10th, 2020 [August 10th, 2020]
- The Survivors' Talmud: When the US Army Printed the Talmud - The Jewish Voice - August 10th, 2020 [August 10th, 2020]
- The Life and Legacy of Torah Scholar and Prolific Author Adin Even-Israel Steinsaltz - Jewish Journal - August 10th, 2020 [August 10th, 2020]
- As The Night Gets Longer - The Jewish Press - JewishPress.com - August 10th, 2020 [August 10th, 2020]
- Running a Jewish day school just got a lot more expensive and parents shouldn't be the only ones paying the price. - JTA News - Jewish Telegraphic... - August 17th, 2020 [August 17th, 2020]
- Heichal HaTorah Bais Medrash Enters Its Second Year with 40 Talmidim - Join us this Zman! - Yeshiva World News - August 17th, 2020 [August 17th, 2020]
- A sweet and sour history of Jews and pickles - The Jewish Star - August 17th, 2020 [August 17th, 2020]
- Holy Witnesses - Torah Insights - Parshah - Chabad.org - August 17th, 2020 [August 17th, 2020]
- End this year, with its curses! | Yaakov Jaffe | The Blogs - The Times of Israel - September 2nd, 2020 [September 2nd, 2020]