HobbySpace – Astronomy

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Astronomy is obviously the oldest and most popular of space hobbies. Even the occasional backyard skywatching by unaided eye or a small telescope can be a marvelous experience.

There are innumerable web sites already devoted to general astronomy and so we start below with just a guide to some introductory sites and a few of the major astronomy link lists.

We will focus here more on sites related to astronomy projects where amateurs can make significant contributions.

One of the most wonderful aspects of astronomy is that amateurs still make significant contributions. Comets, for example, are often discovered by non-professional astronomers.

We put many topics involving near-earth and solar system based phenomena, e.g. meteor show observation, aurora investigation, etc., into the Space Science section. (This is an arbitrary division but is consistent with the HobbySpace emphasis on our solar system.)

Note that the Satellite Watching section also includes astronomy related information and links such as tracking programs, utilities and references. In addition, the offline and online software sections include some star chart program links.

Astronomy related sections at HobbySpace

ASTRONET Carl Koppeschaar's ASTRONET provides links to astronomy and space sites. Also, daily news reports available. Sections include

Astronomy Cafe Sten Odenwald's cafe offers you some exploration with your coffee:

"Have you ever wondered what it might be like to be an astronomer? Do you have any questions that you would like an astronomer to answer? Would you like to hear the latest about hyperspace, black holes, time travel and quantum cosmology? Well, at the Astronomy Cafe you've come to the right place! Sit down, grab a cup of coffee, and have a far-out adventure at the outer frontier of space and time." - web site.

Astronomical Society of the Pacific A very large and active organization with members worldwide. Their Mercury Magazine is a bi-monthly with articles accessible by a wide audience. A selection of the articles are online. There is also an online shop for posters, software, globes, etc.

Cloudy Nights Telescope Reviews Great site with lots of resources such as:

An astronomy addition to Google Earth.

Griffith Observatory This observatory & planetarium is dedicated to public education in astronomy and space exploration. Sky Information

Guide to the Universe Annemie Maertens takes you on trips through our galaxy and on out into the universe. Beautiful images and descriptions of the sights along the way. (In both Dutch and English)

Inconstant Moon Beautifully designed site that offers multimedia tours of the lunar surface. Includes "maps, photos, explanations, animations, selected links and even music".

Que tal in the Current Skies An entertaining and readable monthly newsletter for the casual backyard astronomer. Gives the highlights of night skys for the coming month.

Rose Center for Earth & Space New York's famous Hayden Planetarium at the American Museum of Natural History has been replaced with the $210 million Rose Center. The center includes a new Planetarium and much more. The web site describes the new facility and also offers many online activities and resources.

SEDS Galaxy The website for the Students for Exploration and Development of Space (SEDS) provides a broad array of astronomical related links. Also, see the astronomy images in their archive.

Stig's Sky Calendar Stig Ottosen's site is dedicated to his Java astronomy and space events calendar program that provides info on happenings both celestial and on the ground (e.g. upcoming conferences.)

"Use the Sky Calendar to keep yourself up to date on local and global sky events. It will display sunrise/sunset, twilight and lunar phase and visibility at a glance, and also includes a Planisphere, Planet Finder and Planet Round-up display. You can even customize your sky calendar setup with My Sky Calendar."

There is both an online and offline version.

SkyLights Professor Jim Kaler provides this site for amateur astronomers. Includes weekly updates and astronomy news.

StarDate The University of Texas McDonald Observatory presents the popular StarDate radio show about skywatching. This web site provides lots of astronomy links and useful tips, especially for the backyard astronomer.

The Starpages An enormous searchable database for space and astronomy web resources. Called the "astronomy yellow pages". Sections nclude:

The Telson Spur -- The Snark Hunter's Page Link list site with an enormous number of astronomy and space & astronautics links, arranged in an innovative classification scheme. See, for example, sections on Amateur Astronomy, Sky&Weather.

John Walker's Fourmilab Programs John Walker offers several online and offline (freeware) astronomy programs, as well as interesting information. See, for example,

Microsoft will release this tool in the spring of 2008. It sounds like it will be a powerful competitor to Google Sky

Astronomy Magazines The websites for astronomy magazines typically provide lots of information and resources for astronomers ranging from the beginner to the pro.

Astronomy Day (April 16th) + Globe at Night April 16th each year is the time to celebrate our cosmos and the hobby of astronomy and to participate in astronomical observations.

They developed a very elaborate website with many resources that are still available.

to go outside, look skywards after dark, count the stars they see in certain constellations, and report what they see online. This Windows to the Universe Citizen Science Event is designed to encourage learning in astronomy!

It is part of the Citizen Science program at Windows to the Universe.

Dark Sky Preservation Light pollution has caused most of the cosmos to fade from view for people who live in urban/suburban areas. Extraneous night time illumination, e.g. streetlights that send wasted light upward rather than reflecting it downward, reduces the sensitivity of not only scientific telescopes but of our own eyes to see the dimmer stars and Milky Way from your back yard.

Here are resources that discuss the problem and efforts to combat it.

Organizations for amateurs and students

Astronomy Tourism - Eclipses, Northern Lights, Meteor Showers, etc. It is becoming more and more popular to travel to some exotic location to observe an astronomy related event. The most common such trips are to areas where eclipses will be visible, but now these also include expeditions to view aurora and meteor showers.

Orrery (Solar System Simulator) An Orrery shows the planets and their orbit around the sun. Mechanical Orreries have been around for centuries, typically as beautiful, clockwork-like devices in brass and wood.

Here's a big orrey project meant to run for a long, long time: Long Now > Projects > Clock > Orrery

Now one can find them simulated in software but there are still mechanical versions around. The software versions offer a lot more options but a mechanical Orrery offer a more tangible, intuitive and esthetic experience.

Miscellaneous lunar info and resources:

Science Topics Here are some miscellaneous astronomy related science topics of interest

Go here to read the rest:

HobbySpace - Astronomy

Awesome Library – Science – Astronomy

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Provides answers to commonly asked questions about astronomy. 3-02

Provides short descriptions of contributions of key astronomers.

Provides 10 sources of information on astronomy. 2-03

The CERES Project provides educational resources by topic.

Provides resources in astronomy for children. Includes a night sky map, the solar system, ask an expert, and more. 10-00.

Provides an astronomy search engine (in partnership with Google). 8-01

Provides scripts from Jack Horkheimer's television show on astronomy. (Formerly called Star Hustler). 1-01

Provides a description of the virus, as well as common complications arising from it, such as glandular fever or infectious mononucleosis. Known as EBV. Sometimes visitors misspell as Epstene Bar or Barr. 9-00

Provides a short biography of the Indian-American Nobel laureate, after whom the Chandra X-ray Observatory is named. 9-00

Provides pictures and information for teachers and kids. 1-01

Includes pictures, articles, and links.

Provides theoretical papers related to the nature of the universe.

"Louis Allamandola and his colleagues at the NASA Ames Research Center have created primitive cells of a sortempty, two-layer membranes (see image)from elementary chemicals, exposed to conditions like those in interstellar clouds. 'Scientists believe the molecules needed to make a cell's membrane, and thus for the origin of life, are all over space,' Allamandola says. 'This discovery implies that life could be everywhere in the universe.' " 12-05

Starts in 1898 with a history of discovery and understanding of the neutrino. 6-01

Provides 10 factsheets related to exploration of space. 3-00

"One of the primary concerns in astronomy throughout history was the positioning of the heavenly bodies, for which spherical trigonometry was required. The diagrams below show trihedrals, polyhedra with triangular sides. For astronomy, V is the position of the observer, and PQR are points on a sphere centred at V, the celestial sphere." 8-05

Provides games for kids to learn more about planets and the sun. Uses Flash software. 6-02

Provides activities and games to encourage children to explore astronomy. 11-00.

Provides classroom resources to encourage students to study science and math through astronomy. 1-01

Provides projects for children, with adult supervision. 1-05

Provides directions for creating a rocket at home, made of paper, a canister, tape, water, and an antacid. 3-00

Provides directions for creating a land rover at home, made of paper, a canister, tape, water, and an antacid. 3-00

Provides 12 activities related to exploration of space. 9-01

Provides 11 activities related to science or the exploration of space. 9-01

Provides activities to help understand science. 3-00

Provides interactive projects in science in topics such as robotics, lasers, earthquakes, space exploration, and DNA. 12-02

Provides 8 projects to build related to exploration of space. 3-00

Provides 10 projects to build related to exploration of space. 3-00

Provides a game for kids to learn the location of states. Uses Flash software. 6-02

Read the original here:

Awesome Library - Science - Astronomy

History of astronomy – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, mythological, cosmological, calendrical, and astrological beliefs and practices of pre-history: vestiges of these are still found in astrology, a discipline long interwoven with public and governmental astronomy, and not completely disentangled from it until a few centuries ago in the Western World (see astrology and astronomy). In some cultures, astronomical data was used for astrological prognostication.

Ancient astronomers were able to differentiate between stars and planets, as stars remain relatively fixed over the centuries while planets will move an appreciable amount during a comparatively short time.

Early cultures identified celestial objects with gods and spirits.[1] They related these objects (and their movements) to phenomena such as rain, drought, seasons, and tides. It is generally believed that the first astronomers were priests, and that they understood celestial objects and events to be manifestations of the divine, hence early astronomy's connection to what is now called astrology. Ancient structures with possibly astronomical alignments (such as Stonehenge) probably fulfilled astronomical, religious, and social functions.

Calendars of the world have often been set by observations of the Sun and Moon (marking the day, month and year), and were important to agricultural societies, in which the harvest depended on planting at the correct time of year.[2] The most common modern calendar is based on the Roman calendar, which broke the traditional link of the month to the phases of the moon and divided the year into twelve months, alternately comprising thirty and thirty-one days. In 46 BC, Julius Caesar instigated calendar reform and adopted what is now known as the Julian calendar, based upon the 36514 day year length originally proposed by the 4th century BC Greek astronomer Callippus.

Since 1990 our understanding of prehistoric Europeans has been radically changed by discoveries of ancient astronomical artifacts throughout Europe. The artifacts demonstrate that Neolithic and Bronze Age Europeans had a sophisticated knowledge of mathematics and astronomy.

Among the discoveries are:

The origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, the "land between the rivers" Tigris and Euphrates, where the ancient kingdoms of Sumer, Assyria, and Babylonia were located. A form of writing known as cuneiform emerged among the Sumerians around 35003000 BC. Our knowledge of Sumerian astronomy is indirect, via the earliest Babylonian star catalogues dating from about 1200 BC. The fact that many star names appear in Sumerian suggests a continuity reaching into the Early Bronze Age. Astral theology, which gave planetary gods an important role in Mesopotamian mythology and religion, began with the Sumerians. They also used a sexagesimal (base 60) place-value number system, which simplified the task of recording very large and very small numbers. The modern practice of dividing a circle into 360 degrees, of 60 minutes each, began with the Sumerians. For more information, see the articles on Babylonian numerals and mathematics.

Classical sources frequently use the term Chaldeans for the astronomers of Mesopotamia, who were, in reality, priest-scribes specializing in astrology and other forms of divination.

The first evidence of recognition that astronomical phenomena are periodic and of the application of mathematics to their prediction is Babylonian. Tablets dating back to the Old Babylonian period document the application of mathematics to the variation in the length of daylight over a solar year. Centuries of Babylonian observations of celestial phenomena are recorded in the series of cuneiform tablets known as the Enma Anu Enlil. The oldest significant astronomical text that we possess is Tablet 63 of the Enma Anu Enlil, the Venus tablet of Ammi-saduqa, which lists the first and last visible risings of Venus over a period of about 21 years and is the earliest evidence that the phenomena of a planet were recognized as periodic. The MUL.APIN, contains catalogues of stars and constellations as well as schemes for predicting heliacal risings and the settings of the planets, lengths of daylight measured by a water clock, gnomon, shadows, and intercalations. The Babylonian GU text arranges stars in 'strings' that lie along declination circles and thus measure right-ascensions or time-intervals, and also employs the stars of the zenith, which are also separated by given right-ascensional differences.[15]

A significant increase in the quality and frequency of Babylonian observations appeared during the reign of Nabonassar (747733 BC). The systematic records of ominous phenomena in Babylonian astronomical diaries that began at this time allowed for the discovery of a repeating 18-year cycle of lunar eclipses, for example. The Greek astronomer Ptolemy later used Nabonassar's reign to fix the beginning of an era, since he felt that the earliest usable observations began at this time.

The last stages in the development of Babylonian astronomy took place during the time of the Seleucid Empire (32360 BC). In the third century BC, astronomers began to use "goal-year texts" to predict the motions of the planets. These texts compiled records of past observations to find repeating occurrences of ominous phenomena for each planet. About the same time, or shortly afterwards, astronomers created mathematical models that allowed them to predict these phenomena directly, without consulting past records. A notable Babylonian astronomer from this time was Seleucus of Seleucia, who was a supporter of the heliocentric model.

Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy, in classical Indian astronomy, in Sassanian Iran, in Byzantium, in Syria, in Islamic astronomy, in Central Asia, and in Western Europe.[16]

Astronomy in the Indian subcontinent dates back to the period of Indus Valley Civilization during 3rd millennium BCE, when it was used to create calendars.[17] As the Indus Valley civilization did not leave behind written documents, the oldest extant Indian astronomical text is the Vedanga Jyotisha, dating from the Vedic period.[18] Vedanga Jyotisha describes rules for tracking the motions of the Sun and the Moon for the purposes of ritual. During 6th century AD, astronomy was influenced by the Greek and Byzantine astronomical traditions.[17][19]

Aryabhata (476550), in his magnum opus Aryabhatiya (499), propounded a computational system based on a planetary model in which the Earth was taken to be spinning on its axis and the periods of the planets were given with respect to the Sun. He accurately calculated many astronomical constants, such as the periods of the planets, times of the solar and lunar eclipses, and the instantaneous motion of the Moon.[20][21][pageneeded] Early followers of Aryabhata's model included Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara II.

Astronomy was advanced during the Shunga Empire and many star catalogues were produced during this time. The Shunga period is known as the "Golden age of astronomy in India". It saw the development of calculations for the motions and places of various planets, their rising and setting, conjunctions, and the calculation of eclipses.

Bhskara II (11141185) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, continuing the mathematical tradition of Brahmagupta. He wrote the Siddhantasiromani which consists of two parts: Goladhyaya (sphere) and Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets). He also calculated the time taken for the Earth to orbit the sun to 9 decimal places. The Buddhist University of Nalanda at the time offered formal courses in astronomical studies.

Other important astronomers from India include Madhava of Sangamagrama, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeshtadeva, who were members of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics from the 14th century to the 16th century. Nilakantha Somayaji, in his Aryabhatiyabhasya, a commentary on Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya, developed his own computational system for a partially heliocentric planetary model, in which Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century. Nilakantha's system, however, was mathematically more effient than the Tychonic system, due to correctly taking into account the equation of the centre and latitudinal motion of Mercury and Venus. Most astronomers of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics who followed him accepted his planetary model.[22][23]

The Ancient Greeks developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical, three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by Eudoxus of Cnidus and Callippus of Cyzicus. Their models were based on nested homocentric spheres centered upon the Earth. Their younger contemporary Heraclides Ponticus proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis.

A different approach to celestial phenomena was taken by natural philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. They were less concerned with developing mathematical predictive models than with developing an explanation of the reasons for the motions of the Cosmos. In his Timaeus, Plato described the universe as a spherical body divided into circles carrying the planets and governed according to harmonic intervals by a world soul.[24] Aristotle, drawing on the mathematical model of Eudoxus, proposed that the universe was made of a complex system of concentric spheres, whose circular motions combined to carry the planets around the earth.[25] This basic cosmological model prevailed, in various forms, until the 16th century AD.

In the 3rd century BC Aristarchus of Samos was the first to suggest a heliocentric system, although only fragmentary descriptions of his idea survive.[26]Eratosthenes, using the angles of shadows created at widely separated regions, estimated the circumference of the Earth with great accuracy.[27]

Greek geometrical astronomy developed away from the model of concentric spheres to employ more complex models in which an eccentric circle would carry around a smaller circle, called an epicycle which in turn carried around a planet. The first such model is attributed to Apollonius of Perga and further developments in it were carried out in the 2nd century BC by Hipparchus of Nicea. Hipparchus made a number of other contributions, including the first measurement of precession and the compilation of the first star catalog in which he proposed our modern system of apparent magnitudes.

The Antikythera mechanism, an ancient Greek astronomical observational device for calculating the movements of the Sun and the Moon, possibly the planets, dates from about 150100 BC, and was the first ancestor of an astronomical computer. It was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete. The device became famous for its use of a differential gear, previously believed to have been invented in the 16th century AD, and the miniaturization and complexity of its parts, comparable to a clock made in the 18th century. The original mechanism is displayed in the Bronze collection of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, accompanied by a replica.

Depending on the historian's viewpoint, the acme or corruption of physical Greek astronomy is seen with Ptolemy of Alexandria, who wrote the classic comprehensive presentation of geocentric astronomy, the Megale Syntaxis (Great Synthesis), better known by its Arabic title Almagest, which had a lasting effect on astronomy up to the Renaissance. In his Planetary Hypotheses, Ptolemy ventured into the realm of cosmology, developing a physical model of his geometric system, in a universe many times smaller than the more realistic conception of Aristarchus of Samos four centuries earlier.

The precise orientation of the Egyptian pyramids affords a lasting demonstration of the high degree of technical skill in watching the heavens attained in the 3rd millennium BC. It has been shown the Pyramids were aligned towards the pole star, which, because of the precession of the equinoxes, was at that time Thuban, a faint star in the constellation of Draco.[29] Evaluation of the site of the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak, taking into account the change over time of the obliquity of the ecliptic, has shown that the Great Temple was aligned on the rising of the midwinter sun.[30] The length of the corridor down which sunlight would travel would have limited illumination at other times of the year.

Astronomy played a considerable part in religious matters for fixing the dates of festivals and determining the hours of the night. The titles of several temple books are preserved recording the movements and phases of the sun, moon and stars. The rising of Sirius (Egyptian: Sopdet, Greek: Sothis) at the beginning of the inundation was a particularly important point to fix in the yearly calendar.

Writing in the Roman era, Clement of Alexandria gives some idea of the importance of astronomical observations to the sacred rites:

And after the Singer advances the Astrologer (), with a horologium () in his hand, and a palm (), the symbols of astrology. He must know by heart the Hermetic astrological books, which are four in number. Of these, one is about the arrangement of the fixed stars that are visible; one on the positions of the sun and moon and five planets; one on the conjunctions and phases of the sun and moon; and one concerns their risings.[31]

The Astrologer's instruments (horologium and palm) are a plumb line and sighting instrument[clarification needed]. They have been identified with two inscribed objects in the Berlin Museum; a short handle from which a plumb line was hung, and a palm branch with a sight-slit in the broader end. The latter was held close to the eye, the former in the other hand, perhaps at arms length. The "Hermetic" books which Clement refers to are the Egyptian theological texts, which probably have nothing to do with Hellenistic Hermetism.[32]

From the tables of stars on the ceiling of the tombs of Rameses VI and Rameses IX it seems that for fixing the hours of the night a man seated on the ground faced the Astrologer in such a position that the line of observation of the pole star passed over the middle of his head. On the different days of the year each hour was determined by a fixed star culminating or nearly culminating in it, and the position of these stars at the time is given in the tables as in the centre, on the left eye, on the right shoulder, etc. According to the texts, in founding or rebuilding temples the north axis was determined by the same apparatus, and we may conclude that it was the usual one for astronomical observations. In careful hands it might give results of a high degree of accuracy.

The astronomy of East Asia began in China. Solar term was completed in Warring States period. The knowledge of Chinese astronomy was introduced into East Asia.

Astronomy in China has a long history. Detailed records of astronomical observations were kept from about the 6th century BC, until the introduction of Western astronomy and the telescope in the 17th century. Chinese astronomers were able to precisely predict eclipses.

Much of early Chinese astronomy was for the purpose of timekeeping. The Chinese used a lunisolar calendar, but because the cycles of the Sun and the Moon are different, astronomers often prepared new calendars and made observations for that purpose.

Astrological divination was also an important part of astronomy. Astronomers took careful note of "guest stars" which suddenly appeared among the fixed stars. They were the first to record a supernova, in the Astrological Annals of the Houhanshu in 185 A.D. Also, the supernova that created the Crab Nebula in 1054 is an example of a "guest star" observed by Chinese astronomers, although it was not recorded by their European contemporaries. Ancient astronomical records of phenomena like supernovae and comets are sometimes used in modern astronomical studies.

The world's first star catalogue was made by Gan De, a Chinese astronomer, in the 4th century BC.

Maya astronomical codices include detailed tables for calculating phases of the Moon, the recurrence of eclipses, and the appearance and disappearance of Venus as morning and evening star. The Maya based their calendrics in the carefully calculated cycles of the Pleiades, the Sun, the Moon, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, and also they had a precise description of the eclipses as depicted in the Dresden Codex, as well as the ecliptic or zodiac, and the Milky Way was crucial in their Cosmology.[33] A number of important Maya structures are believed to have been oriented toward the extreme risings and settings of Venus. To the ancient Maya, Venus was the patron of war and many recorded battles are believed to have been timed to the motions of this planet. Mars is also mentioned in preserved astronomical codices and early mythology.[34]

Although the Maya calendar was not tied to the Sun, John Teeple has proposed that the Maya calculated the solar year to somewhat greater accuracy than the Gregorian calendar.[35] Both astronomy and an intricate numerological scheme for the measurement of time were vitally important components of Maya religion.

The Arabic and the Persian world under Islam had become highly cultured, and many important works of knowledge from Greek astronomy and Indian astronomy and Persian astronomy were translated into Arabic, used and stored in libraries throughout the area. An important contribution by Islamic astronomers was their emphasis on observational astronomy[36] This led to the emergence of the first astronomical observatories in the Muslim world by the early 9th century.[37][38]Zij star catalogues were produced at these observatories.

In the 10th century, Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi) carried out observations on the stars and described their positions, magnitudes, brightness, and colour and drawings for each constellation in his Book of Fixed Stars. He also gave the first descriptions and pictures of "A Little Cloud" now known as the Andromeda Galaxy. He mentions it as lying before the mouth of a Big Fish, an Arabic constellation. This "cloud" was apparently commonly known to the Isfahan astronomers, very probably before 905 AD.[39] The first recorded mention of the Large Magellanic Cloud was also given by al-Sufi.[40][41] In 1006, Ali ibn Ridwan observed SN 1006, the brightest supernova in recorded history, and left a detailed description of the temporary star.

In the late 10th century, a huge observatory was built near Tehran, Iran, by the astronomer Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi who observed a series of meridian transits of the Sun, which allowed him to calculate the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the Sun. He noted that measurements by earlier (Indian, then Greek) astronomers had found higher values for this angle, possible evidence that the axial tilt is not constant but was in fact decreasing.[42][43] In 11th-century Persia, Omar Khayym compiled many tables and performed a reformation of the calendar that was more accurate than the Julian and came close to the Gregorian.

Other Muslim advances in astronomy included the collection and correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant problems in the Ptolemaic model, the development of the universal latitude-independent astrolabe by Arzachel,[44] the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, Ja'far Muhammad ibn Ms ibn Shkir's belief that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres were subject to the same physical laws as Earth,[45] the first elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena, the introduction of exacting empirical observations and experimental techniques,[46] and the introduction of empirical testing by Ibn al-Shatir, who produced the first model of lunar motion which matched physical observations.[47]

Natural philosophy (particularly Aristotelian physics) was separated from astronomy by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) in the 11th century, by Ibn al-Shatir in the 14th century,[48] and Qushji in the 15th century, leading to the development of an astronomical physics.[49]

After the significant contributions of Greek scholars to the development of astronomy, it entered a relatively static era in Western Europe from the Roman era through the 12th century. This lack of progress has led some astronomers to assert that nothing happened in Western European astronomy during the Middle Ages.[50] Recent investigations, however, have revealed a more complex picture of the study and teaching of astronomy in the period from the 4th to the 16th centuries.[51]

Western Europe entered the Middle Ages with great difficulties that affected the continent's intellectual production. The advanced astronomical treatises of classical antiquity were written in Greek, and with the decline of knowledge of that language, only simplified summaries and practical texts were available for study. The most influential writers to pass on this ancient tradition in Latin were Macrobius, Pliny, Martianus Capella, and Calcidius.[52] In the 6th Century Bishop Gregory of Tours noted that he had learned his astronomy from reading Martianus Capella, and went on to employ this rudimentary astronomy to describe a method by which monks could determine the time of prayer at night by watching the stars.[53]

In the 7th Century the English monk Bede of Jarrow published an influential text, On the Reckoning of Time, providing churchmen with the practical astronomical knowledge needed to compute the proper date of Easter using a procedure called the computus. This text remained an important element of the education of clergy from the 7th century until well after the rise of the Universities in the 12th century.[54]

The range of surviving ancient Roman writings on astronomy and the teachings of Bede and his followers began to be studied in earnest during the revival of learning sponsored by the emperor Charlemagne.[55] By the 9th century rudimentary techniques for calculating the position of the planets were circulating in Western Europe; medieval scholars recognized their flaws, but texts describing these techniques continued to be copied, reflecting an interest in the motions of the planets and in their astrological significance.[56]

Building on this astronomical background, in the 10th century European scholars such as Gerbert of Aurillac began to travel to Spain and Sicily to seek out learning which they had heard existed in the Arabic-speaking world. There they first encountered various practical astronomical techniques concerning the calendar and timekeeping, most notably those dealing with the astrolabe. Soon scholars such as Hermann of Reichenau were writing texts in Latin on the uses and construction of the astrolabe and others, such as Walcher of Malvern, were using the astrolabe to observe the time of eclipses in order to test the validity of computistical tables.[57]

By the 12th century, scholars were traveling to Spain and Sicily to seek out more advanced astronomical and astrological texts, which they translated into Latin from Arabic and Greek to further enrich the astronomical knowledge of Western Europe. The arrival of these new texts coincided with the rise of the universities in medieval Europe, in which they soon found a home.[58] Reflecting the introduction of astronomy into the universities, John of Sacrobosco wrote a series of influential introductory astronomy textbooks: the Sphere, a Computus, a text on the Quadrant, and another on Calculation.[59]

In the 14th century, Nicole Oresme, later bishop of Liseux, showed that neither the scriptural texts nor the physical arguments advanced against the movement of the Earth were demonstrative and adduced the argument of simplicity for the theory that the earth moves, and not the heavens. However, he concluded "everyone maintains, and I think myself, that the heavens do move and not the earth: For God hath established the world which shall not be moved."[60] In the 15th century, cardinal Nicholas of Cusa suggested in some of his scientific writings that the Earth revolved around the Sun, and that each star is itself a distant sun. He was not, however, describing a scientifically verifiable theory of the universe.

The renaissance came to astronomy with the work of Nicolaus Copernicus, who proposed a heliocentric system, in which the planets revolved around the Sun and not the Earth. His De revolutionibus provided a full mathematical discussion of his system, using the geometrical techniques that had been traditional in astronomy since before the time of Ptolemy. His work was later defended, expanded upon and modified by Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler.

Galileo was considered the father of observational astronomy. He was among the first to use a telescope to observe the sky and after constructing a 20x refractor telescope he discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter in 1610. This was the first observation of satellites orbiting another planet. He also found that our Moon had craters and observed (and correctly explained) sunspots. Galileo noted that Venus exhibited a full set of phases resembling lunar phases. Galileo argued that these observations supported the Copernican system and were, to some extent, incompatible with the favored model of the Earth at the center of the universe.[61] He may have even observed the planet Neptune in 1612 and 1613, over 200 years before it was discovered, but it is unclear if he was aware of what he was looking at.[62][63]

Although the motions of celestial bodies had been qualitatively explained in physical terms since Aristotle introduced celestial movers in his Metaphysics and a fifth element in his On the Heavens, Johannes Kepler was the first to attempt to derive mathematical predictions of celestial motions from assumed physical causes.[64][65] Combining his physical insights with the unprecedentedly accurate naked-eye observations made by Tycho Brahe,[66][67][68] Kepler discovered the three laws of planetary motion that now carry his name.[69]

Isaac Newton developed further ties between physics and astronomy through his law of universal gravitation. Realising that the same force that attracted objects to the surface of the Earth held the moon in orbit around the Earth, Newton was able to explain in one theoretical framework all known gravitational phenomena. In his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, he derived Kepler's laws from first principles. Newton's theoretical developments lay many of the foundations of modern physics.

Outside of England, Newton's theory took some time to become established. Descartes' theory of vortices held sway in France, and Huygens, Leibniz and Cassini accepted only parts of Newton's system, preferring their own philosophies. It wasn't until Voltaire published a popular account in 1738 that the tide changed.[70] In 1748, the French Academy of Sciences offered a reward for solving the perturbations of Jupiter and Saturn which was eventually solved by Euler and Lagrange. Laplace completed the theory of the planets towards the end of the century.

Edmund Halley succeeded Flamsteed as Astronomer Royal in England and succeeded in predicting the return in 1758 of the comet that bears his name. Sir William Herschel found the first new planet, Uranus, to be observed in modern times in 1781. The gap between the planets Mars and Jupiter disclosed by the TitiusBode law was filled by the discovery of the asteroids Ceres and Pallas in 1801 with many more following.

At first, astronomical thought in America was based on Aristotelian philosophy,[71] but interest in the new astronomy began to appear in Almanacs as early as 1659.[72]

In the 19th century it was discovered that, when decomposing the light from the Sun, a multitude of spectral lines were observed (regions where there was less or no light). Experiments with hot gases showed that the same lines could be observed in the spectra of gases, specific lines corresponding to unique elements. It was proved that the chemical elements found in the Sun (chiefly hydrogen and helium) were also found on Earth. During the 20th century spectroscopy (the study of these lines) advanced, especially because of the advent of quantum physics, that was necessary to understand the observations.

Although in previous centuries noted astronomers were exclusively male, at the turn of the 20th century women began to play a role in the great discoveries. In this period prior to modern computers, women at the United States Naval Observatory (USNO), Harvard University, and other astronomy research institutions began to be hired as human "computers," who performed the tedious calculations while scientists performed research requiring more background knowledge. [1] A number of discoveries in this period were originally noted by the women "computers" and reported to their supervisors. For example, at the Harvard Observatory Henrietta Swan Leavitt discovered the cepheid variable star period-luminosity relation which she further developed into a method of measuring distance outside of our solar system. Annie Jump Cannon, also at Harvard, organized the stellar spectral types according to stellar temperature. In 1847, Maria Mitchell discovered a comet using a telescope. According to Lewis D. Eigen, Cannon alone, "in only 4 years discovered and catalogued more stars than all the men in history put together."[73] Most of these women received little or no recognition during their lives due to their lower professional standing in the field of astronomy. Although their discoveries and methods are taught in classrooms around the world, few students of astronomy can attribute the works to their authors or have any idea that there were active female astronomers at the end of the 19th century.

Most of our current knowledge was gained during the 20th century. With the help of the use of photography, fainter objects were observed. Our sun was found to be part of a galaxy made up of more than 1010 stars (10 billion stars). The existence of other galaxies, one of the matters of the great debate, was settled by Edwin Hubble, who identified the Andromeda nebula as a different galaxy, and many others at large distances and receding, moving away from our galaxy.

Physical cosmology, a discipline that has a large intersection with astronomy, made huge advances during the 20th century, with the model of the hot big bang heavily supported by the evidence provided by astronomy and physics, such as the redshifts of very distant galaxies and radio sources, the cosmic microwave background radiation, Hubble's law and cosmological abundances of elements.

In the 19th century, scientists began discovering forms of light which were invisible to the naked eye: X-Rays, gamma rays, radio waves, microwaves, ultraviolet radiation, and infrared radiation. This had a major impact on astronomy, spawning the fields of infrared astronomy, radio astronomy, x-ray astronomy and finally gamma-ray astronomy. With the advent of spectroscopy it was proven that other stars were similar to our own sun, but with a range of temperatures, masses and sizes. The existence of our galaxy, the Milky Way, as a separate group of stars was only proven in the 20th century, along with the existence of "external" galaxies, and soon after, the expansion of the universe seen in the recession of most galaxies from us.

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Astronomy – University of Washington

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Department Overview

C319 Physics-Astronomy Building

Modern research in astronomy and astrophysics encompasses a large number of disciplines and specialties. Research areas include planetary systems and astrobiology, stellar structure and evolution, interstellar matter, binaries and compact objects, galactic structure and dynamics, galaxies and quasars, and large scale structure and cosmology.

Adviser C319 Physics-Astronomy, Box 351580 (206) 543-2888 office@astro.washington.edu

The Department of Astronomy offers the following undergraduate program:

Suggested First-Year Courses: MATH 124, MATH 125, MATH 126, MATH 308, MATH 324; PHYS 121, PHYS 122, PHYS 123. At community colleges it is better to take courses in physics, chemistry, mathematics, and computer science rather than the usual introductory astronomy courses.

PHYS 121, PHYS 122, PHYS 123 (or full transfer equivalent) with a 2.00 cumulative GPA for the three courses.

89 credits as follows:

Of Special Note: The first required astronomy course, ASTR 321, must be preceded by at least one year of college physics and mathematics. Any lower-division astronomy courses count as electives and not as part of the major. To finish in four years, the student must have completed PHYS 123 before winter quarter of the sophomore year. Students are encouraged to take the capstone sequence: spring: ASTR 480; summer: ASTR 481 or ASTR 499 or an REU (Research Experiences for Undergraduates) program; autumn: ASTR 482.

Graduate Program Coordinator C319 Physics-Astronomy, Box 351580 (206) 543-2888 grad@astro.washington.edu

A series of graduate courses in solar system, stellar, galactic, and extragalactic astrophysics is offered. The heart of the graduate program is the collaboration of students and faculty members in research at the frontiers of astronomy. Students work collaboratively with members of the faculty to develop the techniques and insight necessary for successful research and, subsequently, to define a thesis topic. The student's thesis research may use theoretical, computational, or observational material (obtained through the facilities of the UW or one of the national ground- or space-based observatories, or a combination). Active research programs in observations and theory are being carried out in a variety of areas, including astrobiology and extrasolar planets, interplanetary dust and comets, stellar atmospheres and interiors, stellar evolution and populations, interacting binary stars and compact objects, interstellar matter and nebulae, computational astrophysics and data mining, galaxies and quasars, large scale structure and cosmology, and dark matter and energy.

Most, though not all, entering students have a bachelor's degree in physics. Entering students are not required to have a background in astronomy, although some knowledge of general astronomy is expected of those to whom a teaching assistantship is offered. Undergraduates interested in a graduate program in astronomy are urged to concentrate on preparation in physics and mathematics before entering.

Visit http://www.astro.washington.edu/grad for details on admission requirements. Most application material is submitted through the Graduate School online application.

90 credits minimum, to include the following:

Typically PhD students take formal courses during their first two years at the UW while at the same time sampling research projects with various faculty. The department offers a full set of graduate astronomy courses covering every major research area in astrophysics. Areas covered include planetary astronomy, stellar interiors and atmospheres, interstellar medium, galaxies, dynamics, cosmology, physical processes, observational astronomy, and a variety of special topics. Even in their first year, students are encouraged to embark on faculty-supervised research programs so they can make informed decisions about a thesis topic and a professional research career.

Core Curriculum: Each quarter of their first two years, students usually take at least two graduate-level core courses in astronomy, along with a third course emphasizing additional physical or mathematical science study or astronomical research. Typical core courses include ASTR 507, ASTR 519, ASTR 521, ASTR 531, ASTR 557, ASTR 561 in one year, and ASTR 508, ASTR 509, ASTR 511, ASTR 512, ASTR 513, ASTR 541 in the alternate year, along with ASTR 500 and ASTR 581 (latter two often offered annually).

Students must pass two examinations, the qualifying examination and the general examination, before being admitted to PhD candidacy. The qualifying examination, a written examination covering general knowledge, must be passed by the end of the third year of matriculation. The general examination is an oral examination on a topic related to a student's proposed PhD research topic. Students embark on their PhD research program after passing the general examination, typically in their third or fourth year at UW. Most students complete their PhD thesis and defense two to three years later.

A Master of Science degree is offered but the department is not currently accepting students for a master's-only program. Students typically earn the master's degree as part of the PhD program. The departmental requirements for a master's degree are either (1) adequate performance on the qualifying exam or (2) an approved and supervised master's thesis.

Normally all students making satisfactory academic progress receive financial support. More than three-quarters of the department's graduate students hold fellowships or research assistantships. A number of teaching assistantships are available, primarily in the elementary astronomy courses.

Department Overview

Undergraduate Program

Graduate Program

Time Schedule

Academic Planning Worksheet

Departmental Web Page

Departmental Faculty

Course Descriptions

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Astronomy - University of Washington

Montefiore School Health Program – Bronx, New York City

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The Montefiore School Health Program (MSHP)the largest and most comprehensive school-based health program in the countryprovides coordinated primary and preventive healthcare to public elementary, middle and high school students throughout the Bronx.

MSHP partners with students primary and specialty providers to tailor services to the needs of each individual student. As students in our program approach adolescence, we continue to educate and empower them to take responsibility for their own care, creating a healthier school and community environment.

Founded in 1983, the program currently operates in 22 locations, serving 74 schools to deliver comprehensive care in four clinical areas:

Medical services are provided by our nurse practitioners and physicians, with the support of licensed practical nurses and patient care technicians. At the health centers, our patients can expect to receive:

Our providers collaborate with outside providers, providing insight on the services provided in the school setting and proactively seeking health information.

For adolescents participating in our program, we offer confidential reproductive healthcare services when needed, including pregnancy testing, pregnancy prevention and family planning options counseling as well as screening for and diagnosis and treatment of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV.

Mental health servicesprovided by our highly-trained licensed psychologists and social workersare available to address the emotional needs of children and families through confidential evaluation, individual and group therapy, family/parent work and crisis intervention.

Treatment is available to address mental health concerns, including depression, anxiety, trauma, bereavement and family issues. Our providers also engage in preventive mental health initiatives to encourage the development of healthy relationships and prevent dating violence.

Our dentists and dental assistants are available on site or via mobile van at a growing number of our program locations. In addition to preventive services (dental exams, cleanings and sealants are provided to elementary, middle and high school students), on-site X-rays are available at high schools, allowing us to provide additional services such as restorative dental care.

Our community-wide public health programming is designed to educate, empower and support students, parents and families to develop healthy habits and take responsibility for improving their overall health and wellness. Our community health organizers (CHOs) work in partnership with community-based organizations and the New York City Department of Education to coordinate disease prevention programs, education workshops, youth development programs and outreach initiatives.

Community partnerships are invaluable to meeting the needs of the schoolchildren who rely on our programparticularly our priority service areas.

Learn more about our School Health Program priority service areas.

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Montefiore School Health Program - Bronx, New York City

Things To Do in Ohio – Beaches

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East HarborState Park - Located on the shores of Lake Erie, East Harbor State Park has unlimited opportunities for outdoor recreation. Boating, fishing, a 1,500-foot sand beach, picnicking and camping are popular while nature enthusiasts will enjoy the abundance of waterfowl, shorebirds and other species of wildlife found in the park's scenic wetlands.

GenevaState Park - Located on Ohio's northeastern shoreline, Geneva State Park reflects the character and charisma of Lake Erie. The shimmering expanse of the lake lures vacationers who enjoy fishing and boating. Swimmers rejoice in the beautiful sand beach while nature enthusiasts retreat to the park's freshwater marshes and estuaries associated with the lake.

Maumee BayState Park - The park boasts two sand beaches. One beach is located on the Lake Erie shore while the other lines the park's inland lake. A concession area and changing booths are provided. A large lakeside amphitheater lies between the two beaches.

Salt ForkState Park - As Ohio's largest state park, Salt Fork boasts recreational facilities to suit nearly every taste. The 2,500-foot beach is one of the largest inland beaches in Ohio.

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Things To Do in Ohio - Beaches

Skylab – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Skylab Skylab as photographed by its departing final crew (Skylab 4) Station statistics COSPAR ID 1973-027A Call sign Skylab Crew 3 per mission (9 total) Launch May 14, 1973 17:30:00 UTC Launch pad Kennedy Space Center LC-39A Reentry July 11, 1979 16:37:00 UTC near Perth, Australia Mission status Complete; uncontrolled re-entry Mass 150,300lb (68,175kg)[1] w/o Apollo CSM Length 82.4 feet (25.1m) w/o Apollo CSM Width 55.8 feet (17.0m) w/ one solar panel Height 36.3 feet (11.1m) w/ telescope mount Diameter 21.67 feet (6.6m) Pressurised volume 12,417cuft (351.6m3) Perigee 269.7mi (434.0km) Apogee 274.6mi (441.9km) Orbital inclination 50 Orbital period 93.4 min Orbits per day 15.4 Days in orbit 2,249 days Days occupied 171 days Number of orbits 34,981 Distance travelled ~890,000,000 mi (1,400,000,000 km) Statistics as of Re-entry July 11, 1979

Skylab was a space station launched and operated by NASA and was the United States' first space station. Skylab orbited Earth from 1973 to 1979, and included a workshop, a solar observatory, and other systems. It was launched unmanned by a modified Saturn V rocket, with a weight of 150,300 pounds (68,175kg).[1] Three manned missions to the station, conducted between 1973 and 1974 using the Apollo Command/Service Module (CSM) atop the smaller Saturn IB, each delivered a three-astronaut crew. On the last two manned missions, an additional Apollo / Saturn IB stood by ready to rescue the crew in orbit if it was needed.

The station was damaged during launch when the micrometeoroid shield separated from the workshop and tore away, taking one of two main solar panel arrays with it and jamming the other one so that it could not deploy. This deprived Skylab of most of its electrical power, and also removed protection from intense solar heating, threatening to make it unusable. The first crew was able to save it in the first in-space major repair, by deploying a replacement heat shade and freeing the jammed solar panels.

Skylab included the Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory, Multiple Docking Adapter (with two docking ports), Airlock Module with EVA hatches, and the Orbital Workshop, the main habitable volume. Electrical power came from solar arrays, as well as fuel cells in the docked Apollo CSM. The rear of the station included a large waste tank, propellant tanks for maneuvering jets, and a heat radiator.

Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP) was used to view Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions. Thousands of photographs of Earth were taken, and records for human time spent in orbit were extended. Plans were made to refurbish and reuse Skylab, using the Space Shuttle to boost its orbit and repair it. However, development of the Shuttle was delayed, and Skylab reentered Earth's atmosphere and disintegrated in 1979, with debris striking portions of Western Australia. Post-Skylab NASA space laboratory projects included Spacelab, Shuttle-Mir, and Space Station Freedom (later merged into the International Space Station).

Rocket engineer Wernher von Braun, science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke, and other early advocates of manned space travel, expected until the 1960s that a space station would be an important early step in space exploration. Von Braun participated in the publishing of a series of influential articles in Collier's magazine from 1952 to 1954, titled "Man Will Conquer Space Soon!". He envisioned a large, circular station 250 feet (75m) in diameter that would rotate to generate artificial gravity and require a fleet of 7,000-ton (6,500-metric ton) space shuttles for construction in orbit. The 80 men aboard the station would include astronomers operating a telescope, meteorologists to forecast the weather, and soldiers to conduct surveillance. Von Braun expected that future expeditions to the Moon and Mars would leave from the station.[2]:25

The development of the transistor, the solar cell, and telemetry, led in the 1950s and early 1960s to unmanned satellites that could take photographs of weather patterns or enemy nuclear weapons and send them to Earth. A large station was no longer necessary for such purposes, and the United States Apollo program to send men to the Moon chose a mission mode that would not need in-orbit assembly. A smaller station that a single rocket could launch retained value, however, for scientific purposes.[2]:5560

In 1959, von Braun, head of the Development Operations Division at the Army Ballistic Missile Agency, submitted his final Project Horizon plans to the U.S. Army. The overall goal of Horizon was to place men on the Moon, a mission that would soon be taken over by the rapidly forming NASA. Although concentrating on the Moon missions, von Braun also detailed an orbiting laboratory built out of a Horizon upper stage,[3]:23 an idea used for Skylab.[3]:9 A number of NASA centers studied various space station designs in the early 1960s. Studies generally looked at platforms launched by the Saturn V, followed up by crews launched on Saturn IB using an Apollo Command/Service Module,[3]:10 or a Gemini capsule[3]:14 on a Titan II-C, the latter being much less expensive in the case where cargo was not needed. Proposals ranged from an Apollo-based station with two to three men, or a small "canister" for four men with Gemini capsules resupplying it, to a large, rotating station with 24 men and an operating lifetime of about five years.[3]:1314 A proposal to study the use of a Saturn S-IVB as a manned space laboratory was documented in 1962 by the Douglas Aircraft Company.[4]

The Department of Defense (DoD) and NASA cooperated closely in many areas of space.[2]:198202 In September 1963, NASA and the DoD agreed to cooperate in building a space station.[3]:17 The DoD wanted its own manned facility, however,[2]:203 and in December it announced Manned Orbital Laboratory (MOL), a small space station primarily intended for photo reconnaissance using large telescopes directed by a two-man crew. The station was the same diameter as a Titan II upper stage, and would be launched with the crew riding atop in a modified Gemini capsule with a hatch cut into the heat shield on the bottom of the capsule.[3]:1719[5][6] MOL competed for funding with a NASA station for the next five years[3]:15 and politicians and other officials often suggested that NASA participate in MOL or use the DoD design.[2]:203 The military project led to changes to the NASA plans so that they would resemble MOL less.[3]:17

NASA management was concerned about losing the 400,000 workers involved in Apollo after landing on the moon in 1969.[3]:20,22 A reason von Braun, head of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center during the 1960s, advocated for a smaller station after his large one was not built was that he wished to provide his employees with work beyond developing the Saturn rockets, which would be completed relatively early during Project Apollo.[2]:61 NASA set up the Apollo Logistic Support System Office, originally intended to study various ways to modify the Apollo hardware for scientific missions. The office initially proposed a number of projects for direct scientific study, including an extended-stay lunar mission which required two Saturn V launchers, a "lunar truck" based on the Lunar Module (LEM), a large manned solar telescope using a LEM as its crew quarters, and small space stations using a variety of LEM or CSM-based hardware. Although it did not look at the space station specifically, over the next two years the office would become increasingly dedicated to this role. In August 1965, the office was renamed, becoming the Apollo Applications Program (AAP).[3]:20

As part of their general work, in August 1964 the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) presented studies on an expendable lab known as Apollo "X", short for Apollo Extension System. "Apollo X" would have replaced the LEM carried on the top of the S-IVB stage with a small space station slightly larger than the CSM's service area, containing supplies and experiments for missions between 15 and 45 days' duration. Using this study as a baseline, a number of different mission profiles were looked at over the next six months.

In November 1964, von Braun proposed a more ambitious plan to build a much larger station built from the S-II second stage of a Saturn V. His design replaced the S-IVB third stage with an aeroshell, primarily as an adapter for the CSM on top. Inside the shell was a 10-foot (3.0m) cylindrical equipment section. On reaching orbit, the S-II second stage would be vented to remove any remaining hydrogen fuel, then the equipment section would be slid into it via a large inspection hatch. This became known as a "wet workshop" concept, because of the conversion of an active fuel tank. The station filled the entire interior of the S-II stage's hydrogen tank, with the equipment section forming a "spine" and living quarters located between it and the walls of the booster. This would have resulted in a very large 33-by-45-foot (10.1 by 13.7m) living area. Power was to be provided by solar cells lining the outside of the S-II stage.[3]:22

One problem with this proposal was that it required a dedicated Saturn V launch to fly the station. At the time the design was being proposed, it was not known how many of the then-contracted Saturn Vs would be required to achieve a successful Moon landing. However, several planned Earth-orbit test missions for the LEM and CSM had been canceled, leaving a number of Saturn IBs free for use. Further work led to the idea of building a smaller "wet workshop" based on the S-IVB, launched as the second stage of a Saturn IB.

A number of S-IVB-based stations were studied at MSC from mid-1965, which had much in common with the Skylab design that eventually flew. An airlock would be attached to the hydrogen tank, in the area designed to hold the LEM, and a minimum amount of equipment would be installed in the tank itself in order to avoid taking up too much fuel volume. Floors of the station would be made from an open metal framework that allowed the fuel to flow through it. After launch, a follow-up mission launched by a Saturn IB would launch additional equipment, including solar panels, an equipment section and docking adapter, and various experiments. Douglas Aircraft, builder of the S-IVB stage, was asked to prepare proposals along these lines. The company had for several years been proposing stations based on the S-IV stage, before it was replaced by the S-IVB.[3]:25

On April 1, 1966, MSC sent out contracts to Douglas, Grumman, and McDonnell for the conversion of a S-IVB spent stage, under the name Saturn S-IVB spent-stage experiment support module (SSESM).[3]:30 In May, astronauts voiced concerns over the purging of the stage's hydrogen tank in space. Nevertheless, in late July it was announced that the Orbital Workshop would be launched as a part of Apollo mission AS-209, originally one of the Earth-orbit CSM test launches, followed by two Saturn I/CSM crew launches, AAP-1 and AAP-2.

MOL remained AAP's chief competitor for funds, although the two programs cooperated on technology. NASA considered flying experiments on MOL, or using its Titan IIIC booster instead of the much more expensive Saturn IB. The agency decided that the Air Force station was not large enough, and that converting Apollo hardware for use with Titan would be too slow and too expensive.[3]:4548 The DoD later canceled MOL in June 1969.[3]:109

Design work continued over the next two years, in an era of shrinking budgets.[7] (NASA sought $450 million for Apollo Applications in fiscal year 1967, for example, but received $42 million.)[2]:6465 In August 1967, the agency announced that the lunar mapping and base construction missions examined by the AAP were being canceled. Only the Earth-orbiting missions remained, namely the Orbital Workshop and Apollo Telescope Mount solar observatory.

The success of Apollo 8 in December 1968, launched on the third flight of a Saturn V, made it likely that one would be available to launch a dry workshop.[2]:66 Later, several Moon missions were canceled as well, originally to be Apollo missions 18 through 20. The cancellation of these missions freed up three Saturn V boosters for the AAP program. Although this would have allowed them to develop von Braun's original S-II based mission, by this time so much work had been done on the S-IV based design that work continued on this baseline. With the extra power available, the wet workshop was no longer needed;[3]:109110 the S-IC and S-II lower stages could launch a "dry workshop", with its interior already prepared, directly into orbit.

[1]

A dry workshop simplified plans for the interior of the station.[3]:130Industrial design firm Raymond Loewy/William Snaith recommended emphasizing habitability and comfort for the astronauts by, for example, providing a wardroom for meals and relaxation,[3]:133134 and a window to view Earth and space, although astronauts who participated in Skylab planning were dubious about the designers' focus on areas such as color schemes.[3]:137 Habitability had not previously been an area of concern when building spacecraft, due to their small volume and brief mission durations, but the Skylab missions would last for months.[3]:133 NASA sent a scientist on Jacques Piccard's Ben Franklin submarine in the Gulf Stream in July and August 1969, to learn how six people would live in an enclosed space for four weeks.[3]:139140

Astronauts were uninterested in watching movies on a proposed entertainment center or playing games, but did want books and individual music choices.[3]:137 Food was also important; early Apollo crews complained about its quality, and a NASA volunteer found living on the Apollo food for four days on Earth to be intolerable; its taste and composition, in the form of cubes and squeeze tubes, were unpleasant. Skylab food significantly improved on its predecessors by prioritizing edibility over scientific needs.[3]:141142

Each astronaut had a private sleeping area the size of a small walk-in closet, with a curtain, sleeping bag, and locker.[8]:82 Designers also added a shower[3]:139[8]:80 and a toilet;[3]:152158[8]:30 the latter was both for comfort and to obtain precise urine and feces samples for examination on Earth.[3]:165

Rescuing astronauts from Skylab was possible in the most likely emergency circumstances. The crew could use the CSM to quickly return to Earth if the station suffered serious damage. If the CSM failed, the spacecraft and Saturn IB for the next Skylab mission would have been launched with two astronauts to retrieve the crew; given Skylab's ample supplies, its residents would have been able to wait up to several weeks for the rescue mission.[9]

On August 8, 1969, the McDonnell Douglas Corporation received a contract for the conversion of two existing S-IVB stages to the Orbital Workshop configuration. One of the S-IV test stages was shipped to McDonnell Douglas for the construction of a mock-up in January 1970. The Orbital Workshop was renamed "Skylab" in February 1970 as a result of a NASA contest.[3]:115 The actual stage that flew was the upper stage of the AS-212 rocket (the S-IVB stage - S-IVB 212). The mission computer used aboard Skylab was the IBM System/4Pi TC-1, a relative of the AP-101 Space Shuttle computers. A Saturn V originally produced for the Apollo program before the cancellation of Apollo 18, 19, and 20 was repurposed and redesigned to launch Skylab.[10] The Saturn V's upper stage was removed, but with the controlling Instrument Unit remaining in its standard position.

Skylab was launched on May 14, 1973 by the modified Saturn V. The launch is sometimes referred to as Skylab 1, or SL-1. Severe damage was sustained during launch and deployment, including the loss of the station's micrometeoroid shield/sun shade and one of its main solar panels. Debris from the lost micrometeoroid shield further complicated matters by pinning the remaining solar panel to the side of the station, preventing its deployment and thus leaving the station with a huge power deficit.[3]:253255

Immediately following Skylab's launch, Pad A at Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39 was deactivated, and construction proceeded to modify it for the Space Shuttle program, originally targeting a maiden launch in March 1979. The manned missions to Skylab would occur from Launch Pad 39B.

Three manned missions, designated SL-2, SL-3 and SL-4, were made to Skylab. The first manned mission, SL-2, launched on May 25, 1973 atop a Saturn IB and involved extensive repairs to the station. The crew deployed a parasol-like sunshade through a small instrument port from the inside of the station bringing station temperatures down to acceptable levels and preventing overheating that would have melted the plastic insulation inside the station and released poisonous gases. This solution was designed by NASA's "Mr. Fix It" Jack Kinzler, who won the NASA Distinguished Service Medal for his efforts. The crew conducted further repairs via two spacewalks (extra-vehicular activity, or EVA). The crew stayed in orbit with Skylab for 28 days. Two additional missions followed, with the launch dates of July 28, 1973 (SL-3) and November 16, 1973 (SL-4), and mission durations of 59 and 84 days, respectively. The last Skylab crew returned to Earth on February 8, 1974.

Skylab orbited Earth 2,476 times during the 171 days and 13 hours of its occupation during the three manned Skylab missions. Astronauts performed ten spacewalks, totaling 42 hours and 16 minutes. Skylab logged about 2,000 hours of scientific and medical experiments, 127,000 frames of film of the Sun and 46,000 of Earth.[3]:340 Solar experiments included photographs of eight solar flares, and produced valuable results[8]:155 that scientists stated would have been impossible to obtain with unmanned spacecraft.[3]:342344 The existence of the Sun's coronal holes were confirmed because of these efforts.[3]:357 Many of the experiments conducted investigated the astronauts' adaptation to extended periods of microgravity.

A typical day began at 6 AM Central Time Zone.[3]:307308 Although the toilet was small and noisy, both veteran astronautswho had endured earlier missions' rudimentary waste-collection systemsand rookies complimented it.[3]:165,307[8]:80[12] The first crew enjoyed taking a shower once a week, but found drying themselves in weightlessness[12] and vacuuming excess water difficult; later crews usually cleaned themselves daily with wet washcloths instead of using the shower. Astronauts also found that bending over in weightlessness to put on socks or tie shoelaces strained their stomach muscles.[3]:306308

Breakfast began at 7 AM. Astronauts usually stood to eat, as sitting in microgravity also strained their stomach muscles. They reported that their foodalthough greatly improved from Apollowas bland and repetitive, and weightlessness caused utensils, food containers, and bits of food to float away; also, gas in their drinking water contributed to flatulence. After breakfast and preparation for lunch, experiments, tests and repairs of spacecraft systems and, if possible, 90 minutes of physical exercise followed; the station had a bicycle and other equipment, and astronauts could jog around the water tank. After dinner, which was scheduled for 6 PM, crews performed household chores and prepared for the next day's experiments. Following lengthy daily instructions (some of which were up to 15 meters long) sent via teleprinter, the crews were often busy enough to postpone sleep.[3]:309,334[13]:27

Each Skylab mission set a record for the amount of time astronauts spent in space. The station offered what a later study called "a highly satisfactory living and working environment for crews", with enough room for personal privacy.[13]:24 Although it had a dart set,[14]playing cards, and other recreational equipment in addition to books and music players, the window with its view of Earth became the most popular way to relax in orbit.[8]:7980,134135

Overview of most major experiments:[15] Skylab 3 carried several more experiments, such as to observe Comet Kohoutek.

Skylab was abandoned after the end of the SL-4 mission in February 1974, but to welcome visitors the crew left a bag filled with supplies and left the hatch unlocked.[16] NASA discouraged any discussion of additional visits due to the station's age,[3]:335,361 but in 1977 and 1978, when the agency still believed the Space Shuttle would be ready by 1979, it completed two studies on reusing the station.[13]:3-1[16] By September 1978, the agency believed Skylab was safe for crews, with all major systems intact and operational.[13]:3-2 It still had 180 man-days of water and 420 man-days of oxygen, and astronauts could refill both;[16] the station could hold up to about 600 to 700 man-days of drinkable water and 420 man-days of food.[13]:27

The studies cited several benefits from reusing Skylab, which one called a resource worth "hundreds of millions of dollars"[13]:113 with "unique habitability provisions for long duration space flight."[13]:311 Because no more operational Saturn V rockets were available after the Apollo program, four to five shuttle flights and extensive space architecture would have been needed to build another station as large as Skylab's 12,400 cubic feet (350m3) volume.[13]:1-12 to 1-13 Its ample sizemuch greater than that of the shuttle alone, or even the shuttle plus Spacelab[13]:28was enough, with some modifications, for up to seven astronauts[13]:231 of both sexes,[13]:314 and experiments needing a long duration in space;[13]:113 even a movie projector for recreation was possible.[13]:311

Proponents of Skylab's reuse also said repairing and upgrading Skylab would provide information on the results of long-duration exposure to space for future stations.[16] The most serious issue for reactivation was stationkeeping, as one of the station's gyroscopes had failed[3]:361 and the attitude control system needed refueling; these issues would need EVA to fix or replace. The station had not been designed for extensive resupply. However, although it was originally planned that Skylab crews would only perform limited maintenance[8]:34 they successfully made major repairs during EVA, such as the SL-2 crew's deployment of the solar panel[8]:7375 and the SL-4 crew's repair of the primary coolant loop.[3]:317[8]:130[13]:321 The SL-2 crew fixed one item during EVA by, reportedly, "hit[ting] it with [a] hammer."[8]:89

Some studies also said, beyond the opportunity for space construction and maintenance experience, reactivating the station would free up shuttle flights for other uses,[13]:113 and reduce the need to modify the shuttle for long-duration missions.[13]:2-9 to 2-10 Even if the station were not manned again, went one argument, it would serve as a useful experimental platform.[13]:261

The reactivation would likely have occurred in four phases:[16]

The first three phases would have required about $60 million in 1980s dollars, not including launch costs.

After a boost of 6.8 miles (10.9km) by SL-4's Apollo CSM before its departure in 1974, Skylab was left in a parking orbit of 269 miles (433km) by 283 miles (455km)[3]:361 that was expected to last until at least the early 1980s, based on estimates of the 11-year sunspot cycle that began in 1976.[3]:361[20] NASA began considering the potential risks of a space station reentry as early as 1962, but decided to not incorporate a retrorocket system in Skylab due to cost and acceptable risk.[3]:127129

The spent 49-ton Saturn V S-II stage which had launched Skylab in 1973 remained in orbit for almost two years, and made an uncontrolled reentry on January 11, 1975.[21] Some debris, most prominently the five heavy J-2 engines, likely survived to impact in the North Atlantic Ocean. Although this event did not receive heavy media or public attention, it was followed closely by NASA and the Air Force, and helped emphasize the need for improved planning and public awareness for Skylab's eventual reentry.[citation needed]

British mathematician Desmond King-Hele of the Royal Aircraft Establishment predicted that Skylab would de-orbit and crash to earth due to increased solar activity. NASA initially denied this but accepted after his calculations were checked.[citation needed] Greater-than-expected solar activity[3]:362 heated the outer layers of Earth's atmosphere and increased drag on Skylab. By late 1977, NORAD accurately forecast a reentry in mid-1979;[20] a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) scientist criticized NASA for using an inaccurate model for the second most-intense sunspot cycle in a century, and for ignoring NOAA predictions published in 1976.[3]:362363

The reentry of the USSR's nuclear powered Cosmos 954 in January 1978, and the resulting radioactive debris fall in northern Canada, drew more attention to Skylab's orbit. Although Skylab did not contain radioactive materials, the State Department warned NASA about the potential diplomatic repercussions of station debris.[3]:363Battelle Memorial Institute forecast that up to 25 tons of metal debris could land in 500 pieces over an area 4,000 miles long and 1,000 miles wide. The lead-lined film vault, for example, might land intact at 400 feet per second.[22]

Ground controllers re-established contact with Skylab in March 1978[20] and recharged its batteries.[23] Although NASA worked on plans to reboost Skylab with the Space Shuttle through 1978 and the TRS was almost complete, the agency gave up in December when it became clear that the shuttle would not be ready in time;[3]:363367[17] its first flight, STS-1, did not occur until April 1981. Also rejected were proposals to launch the TRS using one or two unmanned rockets[16] or to attempt to destroy the station with missiles.[22]

Skylab's demise was an international media event, with merchandising of T-shirts and hats with bullseyes,[22] wagering on the time and place of re-entry, and nightly news reports. The San Francisco Examiner offered a $10,000 prize for the first piece of Skylab delivered to its offices; the competing Chronicle offered $200,000 if a subscriber suffered personal or property damage.[23] NASA calculated that the odds of station re-entry debris hitting any human were 1 to 152 and when multiplied by 4 billion becomes 1 in 600 billion for a specific human,[24] although the odds of debris hitting a city of 100,000 or more were 1 to 7 and special teams were readied to head to any country hit by debris and requesting help.[23]

We assume that Skylab is on the planet Earth, somewhere.

In the hours before re-entry, ground controllers adjusted Skylab's orientation to try to minimize the risk of re-entry on a populated area.[23] They aimed the station at a spot 810 miles (1,300km) south southeast of Cape Town, South Africa, and re-entry began at approximately 16:37 UTC, July 11, 1979.[3]:371 The Air Force provided data from a secret tracking system able to monitor the reentry.[25] The station did not burn up as fast as NASA expected, however. Due to a 4% calculation error, debris landed southeast of Perth, Western Australia,[3]:371 and was found between Esperance and Rawlinna, from 31 to 34S and 122 to 126E, about 130150km radius around Balladonia. Residents and an airline pilot saw dozens of colorful fireworks-like flares as large pieces broke up in the atmosphere.[22] The Shire of Esperance facetiously fined NASA A$400 for littering, a fine which remained unpaid for 30 years.[26] The fine was paid in April 2009, when radio show host Scott Barley of Highway Radio raised the funds from his morning show listeners and paid the fine on behalf of NASA.[27][28]

Seventeen-year-old Stan Thornton found 24 pieces of Skylab at his home in Esperance. A Philadelphia businessman flew him, his parents, and his girlfriend to San Francisco, where he collected the Examiner prize.[3]:371[22] In a coincidence for the organizers, the annual Miss Universe pageant was scheduled to be held a few days later, on July 20, 1979 in Perth. A large piece of Skylab debris was displayed on the stage.[29] Analysis of the debris showed that the station had not disintegrated until 10 miles above the Earth, much lower than expected.[22]

After the demise of Skylab, NASA focused on the reusable Spacelab module, an orbital workshop that could be deployed with the Space Shuttle and returned to Earth. The next American major space station project was Space Station Freedom, which was merged into the International Space Station in 1993, and launched starting in 1998. Shuttle-Mir was another project, and led to the U.S. funding Spektr, Priroda, and the Mir Docking Module in the 1990s.

Skylab 5 would have been a short 20-day mission to conduct scientific experiments and boost Skylab into a higher orbit. Vance Brand (commander), William B. Lenoir (science pilot), and Don Lind (pilot) would have been the crew for this mission, with Brand and Lind being the prime crew for the Skylab Rescue flights.[30] Brand and Lind also trained for a mission that would have aimed Skylab for a controlled deorbit.[25]

In addition to the flown Skylab space station, a second flight-quality backup Skylab space station had been built during the program. NASA considered using it for a second station in May 1973 or later, to be called Skylab B (S-IVB 515), but decided against it. Launching another Skylab with another Saturn V rocket would have been very costly, and it was decided to spend this money on the development of the Space Shuttle instead. The backup is on display at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.

A full-size training mock-up once used for astronaut training is located at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center visitor's center in Houston, Texas. Another full-size training mock-up is at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville, Alabama. Originally displayed indoors, it was subsequently stored outdoors for several years to make room for other exhibits. To mark the 40th anniversary of the Skylab program, the Orbital Workshop portion of the trainer was restored and moved into the Davidson Center in 2013.[31][32] NASA transferred the backup Skylab to the National Air and Space Museum in 1975. On display in the Museum's Space Hall since 1976, the orbital workshop has been slightly modified to permit viewers to walk through the living quarters.[33]

The numerical identification of the manned Skylab missions was the cause of some confusion. Originally, the unmanned launch of Skylab and the three manned missions to the station were numbered SL-1 through SL-4. During the preparations for the manned missions, some documentation was created with a different scheme -- SLM-1 through SLM-3for those missions only. William Pogue credits Pete Conrad with asking the Skylab program director which scheme should be used for the mission patches, and the astronauts were told to use 1-2-3, not 2-3-4. By the time NASA administrators tried to reverse this decision, it was too late, as all the in-flight clothing had already been manufactured and shipped with the 1-2-3 mission patches.[34]

From 1966 to 1974, the Skylab program cost a total of $2.2 billion or $10 billion in 2010 dollars with inflation. As its three three-man crews spent 510 total man-days in space, each man-day cost approximately $20 million in 2010 dollars, compared to $7.5 million for the International Space Station.[35]

An astronaut mannequin dines aboard the backup Skylab at the Smithsonian NASM.

SkyLab commemorative stamp, Issue of 1974. The commemorative stamp reflects initial repairs to the station, including the parasol sunshade.

Vanguard (T-AGM-19) seen as a NASA Skylab tracking ship. Note the tracking radar and telemetry antennas.

Robbins Medallions issued for Skylab Missions.

Link:

Skylab - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

www.ibe.unesco.org

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New York Medical College – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Founded in 1860, New York Medical College (known colloquially as "NYMC" or "New York Med"), a member of the Touro College and University System, is a private biomedical health sciences university based in Valhalla, New York, in Westchester County in the lower Hudson Valley region of New York state just 13 miles north of New York City. It is the only biomedical health sciences and research university between New York City and the state capital of Albany, New York.

NYMC offers advanced degrees through its three schools: the School of Medicine (SOM), the Graduate School of Basic Medical Sciences (GSBMS) and the School of Health Sciences and Practice (SHSP). Total enrollment is 1,660 students (including 774 medical students) in addition to 800 residents and clinical fellows. NYMC employs 1,350 full-time faculty members and 1,450 part-time and voluntary faculty. The university has more than 12,000 alumni active in medical practice, healthcare administration, public health, teaching and research.

Part of the Touro College and University System since 2011, New York Medical College is located on a shared suburban 600-acre campus with its academic medical center, Westchester Medical Center (WMC) and the Maria Fareri Children's Hospital. Many of NYMCs faculty provide patient care, teach, and conduct research at WMC. New York Medical College's university hospital, Metropolitan Hospital Center, located in the Upper East side neighborhood of Yorkville and East Harlem in Manhattan, has been affiliated with NYMC since it was founded in 1875, representing the oldest partnership between a hospital and a private medical school in the United States. Metropolitan is part of the New York City Health and Hospitals Corporation (HHC), the largest municipal hospital and healthcare system in the country.

With a network of 20+ affiliated hospitals in New York, New Jersey, Connecticut and West Virginia, NYMC's hospital affiliations include large urban medical centers, small suburban clinics, rural medical centers and high-tech regional tertiary care facilities, where medical students and residents are afforded a wide variety of clinical training opportunities.

New York Medical College owes its founding in 1860 to a group of civic leaders who believed that medical studies should be practiced with a better understanding of what the patient needs. This group of civic leaders was led by the noted poet William Cullen Bryant who was an editor of the New York Evening Post. Bryant was concerned about the condition of hospitals and medical education in New York City. His main concern was with some of the medical practices being used to treat disease, which at the time included bleedings, purges, and the administration of strong drugs in too large doses.

Interest in the medical field rapidly grew over the next few years due to the United States Civil War, which generated a major need for health related occupations. As a result, the college was founded and opened as the Homeopathic Medical College of the State of New York on the corner of 20th Street and Third Avenue, near Union Square in Manhattan. In the first semester there were 59 students and 8 professors. The college adopted the name New York Homeopathic Medical College in 1869 and, in 1887, New York Homeopathic Medical College and Hospital.

The sister institution known as the New York Medical College for Women was founded a few years later in 1863. In 1867, it graduated Emily Stowe, the first female physician to practice in Canada. Three years later in 1870, Susan McKinney Steward graduated as the first African-American female physician in New York State. When the Women's College closed in 1918, its students transferred to New York Medical College.

In 1875, Metropolitan Hospital Center opened as a municipal facility on Wards Island, staffed largely by the faculty of New York Medical College. As a university hospital of New York Medical College, this relationship is among the nations oldest continuing affiliations between a private medical school and a public hospital.

Built by New York Medical College in 1889, the Flower Free Surgical Hospital, was the first teaching hospital in the United States to be owned by a medical college. It was constructed at York Avenue and 63rd Street with funds given largely by Congressman Roswell P. Flower, later governor of New York. In 1908 the College changed its name to New York Homeopathic Medical College and Flower Hospital. In 1928 the College was the first medical school in the nation to establish a minority scholarship program. By 1935, the College had transferred its outpatient activities to the Fifth Avenue Hospital at Fifth Avenue and 106th Street. The College (including Flower Hospital) and Fifth Avenue Hospital merged in 1938 and became New York Medical College, Flower and Fifth Avenue Hospitals.

In 1972, New York Medical College moved to Valhalla, at the invitation of the Westchester County government, which desired to build an academic medical center. Completed in 1977, Westchester Medical Center is currently the main academic medical center of the College. The College became affiliated with the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York in 1978, which helped provide financial stability and also established a shared commitment for the public good in the area of health care and the health sciences. The College recognized itself in the Catholic tradition and affiliated with several Catholic hospitals. When Flower and Fifth Avenue Hospital closed in 1979, the remaining operations of New York Medical College were transferred to the Valhalla campus. The college shortened its name to New York Medical College in 1982, and obtained university status in 1984 by the New York State Department of Education.

In 2010, the NYMC community proudly celebrated the 150th anniversary of the founding of NYMC with a year full of sesquicentennial celebration activities. In that same year, it was announced that Touro College, a Jewish-sponsored institution in Manhattan had reached an agreement to assume the sponsorship role for New York Medical College from the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York. In a ceremony held at Bryant Park in New York City on May 25, 2011, New York Medical College officially joined the Touro College and University System creating one of the largest health sciences universities in the country. New York Medical College embraces its unique history in having been a secular institution to an institution in the Roman Catholic tradition, to now being part of a Jewish-sponsored institution of higher education.

In 2011, St. Joseph's Medical Center in Paterson, New Jersey and Lenox Hill Hospital in Manhattan, New York were designated as affiliates. Saint Michaels Medical Center in Newark, New Jersey; Brookdale University Hospital and Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York; and the Beckley Department of Veterans Affairs in Beckley, West Virginia, also joined NYMC in 2014 as academic affiliates adding to the breadth and diversity of clinical experiences for students and residents.

In 2013, NYMC acquired former IBM headquarters, 19 Skyline Drive, a 250,000 square foot, five-story building providing essential space for offices and new programs. In addition, NYMC acquired 7 Dana Road and has renovated it into a state-of-the-art biotechnology incubator (BioInc@NYMC) and Clinical Skills and Disaster Medicine Training Center.

The College's involvement in graduate education dates back to 1910, when its records show the existence of advanced courses and research programs. Graduate courses in surgery and medicine were offered in the 1920s. In 1938, the College's charter was amended to include the authority to offer graduate degrees. In 1963, the Graduate School of Medical Sciences was officially founded, establishing for the first time a center for graduate education separate from the medical curriculum. The school was renamed the Graduate School of Basic Medical Sciences in 1969.

The GSBMS prepares future researchers, teachers, senior-level scientists and technicians to work in academia and industry. It is located in the Basic Sciences Building along with facilities of the School of Medicine. The graduate school has approximately 150 enrolled students and 90 faculty members.

Doctoral (Ph.D.) and masters (MS) programs are available in the fields of cell biology & anatomy, biochemistry & molecular biology, pharmacology, pathology, physiology, and microbiology & immunology. The Graduate School offers an Accelerated Masters Program (AMP) intended for prospective medical school applicants and a M.D./Ph.D. dual degree program for current and prospective medical students.

The School of Health Sciences and Practice began in 1981 as the Graduate School of Health Sciences, located at Vosburgh Pavilion near the School of Medicine and Westchester Medical Center. Student enrollment is approximately 500 with 221 faculty members (150 full-time).

The SHSP offers accredited programs in public health (MPH, DrPH), speech language pathology (MS), and doctor of physical therapy (DPT). Doctoral students may pursue a dual degree (M.D./MPH) or joint degree (DPT/MPH) at significantly reduced cost.[3]

Students in the Master of Public Health program may major in Behavioral Sciences & Health Promotion, Epidemiology, Environmental Health Science, or Health Policy & Management, or Biostatistics.

The School of Health Sciences and Practice also offers graduate certificates in the following areas: Global Health, Public Health, Certified Health Education Specialist (CHES-accredited), Industrial Hygiene, Management of Long-Term Care Facilities, Children with Special Health Care Needs (Center on Disability and Health), and Emergency Preparedness (Center for Disaster Medicine).

Founded in 1860, the School of Medicine at New York Medical College is one of the oldest in the nation. It is the largest of the three graduate schools, awarding approximately 190 Doctor of Medicine degrees per year. Students have the opportunity to earn dual degrees such as M.D./M.P.H., M.D./M.S. or M.D./Ph.D. in the School of Health Sciences and Practice or Graduate School of Basic Medical Sciences

The School of Medicine has 774 actively enrolled students (31% in-state) along with 2,944 faculty members serving in 6 basic science and 20 clinical departments. Grading is Honors/High Pass/Pass/Fail. On-campus housing is provided for most preclinical students in furnished, unfurnished, single or married configurations.

The medical school has adopted the multiple mini interview system as well as the CASPer test,[4] both developed by McMaster University Medical School to select students for admissions.

For the past several years, the passing rate for the USMLE Step 1 exam was between 99 and 100%, above the national average.[5] To date, 13,270 physicians have graduated from the School of Medicine with 97% being board certified. Approximately 917 School of Medicine graduates currently serve on an American medical school faculty, including 18 department chairs.[6]

The New York Medical College has more hospitals ranked in the top 20 than any other University in the tri-state area.[7] Located on campus, Westchester Medical Center University Hospital is the main academic medical center of New York Medical College School of Medicine. It is ranked among the top five hospitals in New York State for bariatric surgery, and is one of only 25 hospitals in the nation to receive the American Heart Association's 2008 Triple Performance Award.[8] Westchester Medical Center also boasts the highest case mix index of all hospitals in the United States.[9]

A significant portion of the medical school class relocates to New York City for clinical rotations, for which the primary site is Metropolitan Hospital Center in Manhattan. Housing is provided for rotations that are further from the main campus, such as those in Connecticut, New Jersey or Staten Island.

New York Medical College is affiliated with the following hospitals and health care organizations for graduate and undergraduate medical education:

Medical students are especially selected from the Ivy League, top colleges and universities across the country and the first-year class typically arrives with an average composite MCAT score of 32 and an average GPA of 3.6.[10][11]

The class of 2015 matched into the following specialties:[12]

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Main Departmental Office: Human Genetics Institute Life Sciences Building 145 Bevier Road Piscataway, NJ 08854-8082

Undergraduate Departmental Office: Department of Genetics, Nelson Bio Labs-B416 604 Allison Road Piscataway, NJ 08854-8082

Dr. Linda Brzustowicz - Chair This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. (P) 848-445-1638 (F) 732-445-1636

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Health care – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Health care or healthcare is a field or enterprise concerned with supplying services, equipment, information, etc., for the maintenance or restoration of health.

Access to health care varies across countries, groups, and individuals, largely influenced by social and economic conditions as well as the health policies in place. Countries and jurisdictions have different policies and plans in relation to the personal and population-based health care goals within their societies. Health care systems are organizations established to meet the health needs of target populations. Their exact configuration varies between national and subnational entities. In some countries and jurisdictions, health care planning is distributed among market participants, whereas in others, planning occurs more centrally among governments or other coordinating bodies. In all cases, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), a well-functioning health care system requires a robust financing mechanism; a well-trained and adequately-paid workforce; reliable information on which to base decisions and policies; and well maintained health facilities and logistics to deliver quality medicines and technologies.[1]

Health care can contribute to a significant part of a country's economy. In 2011, the health care industry consumed an average of 9.3 percent of the GDP or US$ 3,322 (PPP-adjusted) per capita across the 34 members of OECD countries. The USA (17.7%, or US$ PPP 8,508), the Netherlands (11.9%, 5,099), France (11.6%, 4,118), Germany (11.3%, 4,495), Canada (11.2%, 5669), and Switzerland (11%, 5,634) were the top spenders, however life expectancy in total population at birth was highest in Switzerland (82.8 years), Japan and Italy (82.7), Spain and Iceland (82.4), France (82.2) and Australia (82.0), while OECD's average exceeds 80 years for the first time ever in 2011: 80.1 years, a gain of 10 years since 1970. The USA (78.7 years) ranges only on place 26 among the 34 OECD member countries, but has the highest costs by far. All OECD countries have achieved universal (or almost universal) health coverage, except Mexico and the USA.[2][3] (see also international comparisons.)

Health care is conventionally regarded as an important determinant in promoting the general physical and mental health and well-being of people around the world. An example of this was the worldwide eradication of smallpox in 1980, declared by the WHO as the first disease in human history to be completely eliminated by deliberate health care interventions.[4]

The delivery of modern health care depends on groups of trained professionals and paraprofessionals coming together as interdisciplinary teams.[5] This includes professionals in medicine, psychology, physiotherapy, nursing, dentistry, midwifery and allied health, plus many others such as public health practitioners, community health workers and assistive personnel, who systematically provide personal and population-based preventive, curative and rehabilitative care services.

While the definitions of the various types of health care vary depending on the different cultural, political, organizational and disciplinary perspectives, there appears to be some consensus that primary care constitutes the first element of a continuing health care process, that may also include the provision of secondary and tertiary levels of care.[6] Healthcare can be defined as either public or private.

Primary care refers to the work of health professionals who act as a first point of consultation for all patients within the health care system.[6][8] Such a professional would usually be a primary care physician, such as a general practitioner or family physician, a licensed independent practitioner such as a physiotherapist, or a non-physician primary care provider (mid-level provider) such as a physician assistant or nurse practitioner. Depending on the locality, health system organization, and sometimes at the patient's discretion, they may see another health care professional first, such as a pharmacist, a nurse (such as in the United Kingdom), a clinical officer (such as in parts of Africa), or an Ayurvedic or other traditional medicine professional (such as in parts of Asia). Depending on the nature of the health condition, patients may then be referred for secondary or tertiary care.

Primary care is often used as the term for the health care services which play a role in the local community. It can be provided in different settings, such as Urgent care centres which provide services to patients same day with appointment or walk-in bases.

Primary care involves the widest scope of health care, including all ages of patients, patients of all socioeconomic and geographic origins, patients seeking to maintain optimal health, and patients with all manner of acute and chronic physical, mental and social health issues, including multiple chronic diseases. Consequently, a primary care practitioner must possess a wide breadth of knowledge in many areas. Continuity is a key characteristic of primary care, as patients usually prefer to consult the same practitioner for routine check-ups and preventive care, health education, and every time they require an initial consultation about a new health problem. The International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC) is a standardized tool for understanding and analyzing information on interventions in primary care by the reason for the patient visit.[9]

Common chronic illnesses usually treated in primary care may include, for example: hypertension, diabetes, asthma, COPD, depression and anxiety, back pain, arthritis or thyroid dysfunction. Primary care also includes many basic maternal and child health care services, such as family planning services and vaccinations. In the United States, the 2013 National Health Interview Survey found that skin disorders (42.7%), osteoarthritis and joint disorders (33.6%), back problems (23.9%), disorders of lipid metabolism (22.4%), and upper respiratory tract disease (22.1%, excluding asthma) were the most common reasons for accessing a physician.[10]

In the United States, primary care physicians have begun to deliver primary care outside of the managed care (insurance-billing) system through direct primary care which is a subset of the more familiar concierge medicine. Physicians in this model bill patients directly for services, either on a pre-paid monthly, quarterly, or annual basis, or bill for each service in the office. Examples of direct primary care practices include Foundation Health in Colorado and Qliance in Washington.

In context of global population aging, with increasing numbers of older adults at greater risk of chronic non-communicable diseases, rapidly increasing demand for primary care services is expected in both developed and developing countries.[11][12] The World Health Organization attributes the provision of essential primary care as an integral component of an inclusive primary health care strategy.[6]

Secondary care is the health care services provided by medical specialists, dental specialists and other health professionals who generally do not have first contact with patients: for example, cardiologists, urologists, endodontists, and oral and maxillofacial surgeons.

It includes acute care: necessary treatment for a short period of time for a brief but serious illness, injury or other health condition, such as in a hospital emergency department. It also includes skilled attendance during childbirth, intensive care, and medical imaging services.

The term "secondary care" is sometimes used synonymously with "hospital care". However, many secondary care providers do not necessarily work in hospitals, such as psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, occupational therapists, most dental specialties or physiotherapists (physiotherapists are also primary care providers, and a referral is not required to see a physiotherapist), and some primary care services are delivered within hospitals. Depending on the organization and policies of the national health system, patients may be required to see a primary care provider for a referral before they can access secondary care.

For example, in the United States, which operates under a mixed market health care system, some physicians might voluntarily limit their practice to secondary care by requiring patients to see a primary care provider first, or this restriction may be imposed under the terms of the payment agreements in private or group health insurance plans. In other cases medical specialists may see patients without a referral, and patients may decide whether self-referral is preferred.

In the United Kingdom and Canada, patient self-referral to a medical specialist for secondary care is rare as prior referral from another physician (either a primary care physician or another specialist) is considered necessary, regardless of whether the funding is from private insurance schemes or national health insurance.

Allied health professionals, such as physical therapists, respiratory therapists, occupational therapists, speech therapists, and dietitians, also generally work in secondary care, accessed through either patient self-referral or through physician referral.

Tertiary care is specialized consultative health care, usually for inpatients and on referral from a primary or secondary health professional, in a facility that has personnel and facilities for advanced medical investigation and treatment, such as a tertiary referral hospital.[13]

Examples of tertiary care services are cancer management, neurosurgery, cardiac surgery, plastic surgery, treatment for severe burns, advanced neonatology services, palliative, and other complex medical and surgical interventions.[14]

The term quaternary care is sometimes used as an extension of tertiary care in reference to advanced levels of medicine which are highly specialized and not widely accessed. Experimental medicine and some types of uncommon diagnostic or surgical procedures are considered quaternary care. These services are usually only offered in a limited number of regional or national health care centres.[14][15] This term is more prevalent in the United Kingdom, but just as applicable in the United States. A quaternary care hospital may have virtually any procedure available, whereas a tertiary care facility may not offer a sub-specialist with that training.

Many types of health care interventions are delivered outside of health facilities. They include many interventions of public health interest, such as food safety surveillance, distribution of condoms and needle-exchange programmes for the prevention of transmissible diseases.

They also include the services of professionals in residential and community settings in support of self care, home care, long-term care, assisted living, treatment for substance use disorders and other types of health and social care services.

Community rehabilitation services can assist with mobility and independence after loss of limbs or loss of function. This can include prosthesis, orthotics or wheelchairs.

Many countries, especially in the west are dealing with aging populations, and one of the priorities of the health care system is to help seniors live full, independent lives in the comfort of their own homes. There is an entire section of health care geared to providing seniors with help in day-to-day activities at home, transporting them to doctor's appointments, and many other activities that are so essential for their health and well-being. Although they provide home care for older adults in cooperation, family members and care workers may harbor diverging attitudes and values towards their joint efforts. This state of affairs presents a challenge for the design of ICT for home care.[16]

With obesity in children rapidly becoming a major concern, health services often set up programs in schools aimed at educating children in good eating habits; making physical education compulsory in school; and teaching young adolescents to have positive self-image.

Health care ratings are ratings or evaluations of health care used to evaluate process of care, healthcare structures and/or outcomes of a healthcare services. This information is translated into report cards that are generated by quality organizations, nonprofit,consumer groups and media. This evaluation of quality can be based on:

Health care extends beyond the delivery of services to patients, encompassing many related sectors, and set within a bigger picture of financing and governance structures.

A health system, also sometimes referred to as health care system or healthcare system is the organization of people, institutions, and resources to deliver health care services to meet the health needs of target populations.

The health care industry incorporates several sectors that are dedicated to providing health care services and products. As a basic framework for defining the sector, the United Nations' International Standard Industrial Classification categorizes health care as generally consisting of hospital activities, medical and dental practice activities, and "other human health activities". The last class involves activities of, or under the supervision of, nurses, midwives, physiotherapists, scientific or diagnostic laboratories, pathology clinics, residential health facilities, patient advocates,[17] or other allied health professions, e.g. in the field of optometry, hydrotherapy, medical massage, yoga therapy, music therapy, occupational therapy, speech therapy, chiropody, homeopathy, chiropractics, acupuncture, etc.[18]

In addition, according to industry and market classifications, such as the Global Industry Classification Standard and the Industry Classification Benchmark, health care includes many categories of medical equipment, instruments and services as well as biotechnology, diagnostic laboratories and substances, and drug manufacturing and delivery.

For example, pharmaceuticals and other medical devices are the leading high technology exports of Europe and the United States.[19][20] The United States dominates the biopharmaceutical field, accounting for three-quarters of the world's biotechnology revenues.[19][21]

The quantity and quality of many health care interventions are improved through the results of science, such as advanced through the medical model of health which focuses on the eradication of illness through diagnosis and effective treatment. Many important advances have been made through health research, including biomedical research and pharmaceutical research, which form the basis for evidence-based medicine and evidence-based practice in health care delivery.

For example, in terms of pharmaceutical research and development spending, Europe spends a little less than the United States (22.50bn compared to 27.05bn in 2006). The United States accounts for 80% of the world's research and development spending in biotechnology.[19][21]

In addition, the results of health services research can lead to greater efficiency and equitable delivery of health care interventions, as advanced through the social model of health and disability, which emphasizes the societal changes that can be made to make population healthier.[22] Results from health services research often form the basis of evidence-based policy in health care systems. Health services research is also aided by initiatives in the field of AI for the development of systems of health assessment that are clinically useful, timely, sensitive to change, culturally sensitive, low burden, low cost, involving for the patient and built into standard procedures.[23]

There are generally five primary methods of funding health care systems:[24]

In most countries, the financing of health care services features a mix of all five models, but the exact distribution varies across countries and over time within countries.[citation needed] In all countries and jurisdictions, there are many topics in the politics and evidence that can influence the decision of a government, private sector business or other group to adopt a specific health policy regarding the financing structure.

For example, social health insurance is where a nation's entire population is eligible for health care coverage, and this coverage and the services provided are regulated. In almost every jurisdiction with a government-funded health care system, a parallel private, and usually for-profit, system is allowed to operate.[citation needed] This is sometimes referred to as two-tier health care or universal health care.

For example, in Poland, the costs of health services borne by the National Health Fund (financed by all citizens that pay health insurance contributions) in 2012 amounted to 60.8 billion PLN (approximately 20 billion USD). The right to health services in Poland is granted to 99.9% of the population (also registered unemployed persons and their spouses).[25]

The management and administration of health care is another sector vital to the delivery of health care services. In particular, the practice of health professionals and operation of health care institutions is typically regulated by national or state/provincial authorities through appropriate regulatory bodies for purposes of quality assurance.[26] Most countries have credentialing staff in regulatory boards or health departments who document the certification or licensing of health workers and their work history.[27]

Health information technology (HIT) is "the application of information processing involving both computer hardware and software that deals with the storage, retrieval, sharing, and use of health care information, data, and knowledge for communication and decision making."[28] Technology is a broad concept that deals with a species' usage and knowledge of tools and crafts, and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt to its environment. However, a strict definition is elusive; "technology" can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines, hardware or utensils, but can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and techniques.[citation needed] For HIT, technology represents computers and communications attributes that can be networked to build systems for moving health information. Informatics is yet another integral aspect of HIT.

Health information technology can be divided into further components like Electronic Health Record (EHR), Electronic Medical Record (EMR), Personal Health Record (PHR), Practice Management System (PMS), Health Information Exchange (HIE) and many more. There are multiple purposes for the use of HIT within the health care industry. Further, the use of HIT is expected to improve the quality of health care, reduce medical errors, improve the health care service efficiency and reduce health care costs.

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Wilmington, Delaware Tax Preparation Offices | Liberty Tax

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Wilmington University – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Wilmington University is a private, non-profit doctoral research institution[5][6] located in New Castle, Delaware, United States.

As of 2016, the university serves a total student body of 20,522 undergraduate and postgraduate students in nearly 100 degree and certificate programs. The university's programs are offered at its main campus in historic New Castle as well as at six additional campuses in Delaware, several partnership locations in New Jersey, and a single partnership location in northeastern Maryland.[7]

Wilmington University was founded just outside historic New Castle, Delaware, in 1968 by Dr. Donald E. Ross, who served as the institution's president until 1977.[8] The school began with a charter class of 194 students in 1968; between 1979 and 2006, the university grew to more than 10,000 students under the leadership of president Dr. Audrey K. Doberstein. Doberstein was inducted into the Hall of Fame of Delaware Women in 2011 in recognition of her contributions to Wilmington University and the community.[9] The university now offers graduate and doctoral degrees, and serves more than 20,000[3] students enrolled annually in online and on-campus classes[10] at campuses in three states.

Founded as Wilmington College, the institution officially became Wilmington University on September 10, 2007, after the approval of the Board of Trustees and the Middle States Commission on Higher Education. The name was changed to reflect the emphasis on undergraduate and postgraduate degree programs.[3]

Wilmington University offers nearly 100 degree and certificate programs across its seven academic colleges and 14 campus locations throughout Delaware, New Jersey, and Maryland, as well as dozens of academic minors and concentrations that specialize its degree offerings.

USNWR Online Programs Rankings[13]

Forbes Lists[14]

Specializing in a traditional, liberal arts education, the College of Arts & Sciences features undergraduate programs in liberal studies and communication, with minors in art, drama, history, mathematics, and natural science. The college offers an Associate of Arts degree program as well as a traditional, four-year course of study in these fields.[15]

Accredited by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) in 2007,[16] the College of Education is one of the largest academic colleges at Wilmington University and offers teacher preparation programs that range from elementary education to specialized secondary education fields, school leadership, innovation, and much more.[17] At any given time, there are more than 1,000 Wilmington University education students performing supervized field work, such as student teaching instruction, throughout Delaware and the wider Philadelphia metropolitan area.[18]

The College of Business, accredited by the International Assembly for Collegiate Business Education,[19] offers 10 undergraduate, 4 graduate, and 1 doctoral program in fields like business administration, accounting, finance, economics, marketing, and analytics. Certificate programs, as well as six concentrations, are also offered.[20] The College of business maintains an active chapter of the Sigma Beta Delta international honor society for students in business, management, and administration programs.

The College of Health Professions is unique among universities in the region, in that its undergraduate programs are offered only as "completion" programs for students who have already attended a two-year nursing program and become a Registered Nurse. The college, which has full accreditation by the Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education (CCNE) for its undergraduate and graduate programs, enrolled its first class of RN-to-BSN students in 1986. In 1993, the unviersity approved the addition of a Master of Science in Nursing program, which today features three distinct concentrations that fit students' unique needs. In 2005, an undergraduate completion program in Allied Health was approved, giving students access to one of the fastest-growing academic and professional practice areas in the health professions.[22] The College of Health Professions also offers a Doctor of Nursing Practice program.[23]

With degree programs ranging from political science and legal studies to clinical mental health counseling and organizational dynamics, the College of Social & Behavioral Sciences is one of the largest colleges at Wilmington University. Many programs offered by the college are professionally accredited; the Bachelor of Science program in legal studies has been approved by the American Bar Association (ABA), while the college's graduate program in clinical mental health counseling has achieved accreditation by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP).[24] Students in the College of Social & Behavioral Sciences often participate in the CAP co-op program, which offers academic credit in exchange for a semester-long internship relevant to the student's course of study.

The College of Technology was awarded in 2011 by the National Security Agency as a National Center of Academic Excellence in Information Assurance Education (CAE/IAE).[25] The CAE/IAE designation from the NSA applies to the College of Technology undergraduate Computer and Network Security degree program and the Information Systems Technologies, Information Assurance graduate program.[26]

The College of Online and Experiential Learning houses all of Wilmington University's more than 95 online degree programs, concentrations, and certificates.[27] The college serves 41 percent of the student body, as of 2016, with distance education programs in business, education, technology, and many other fields.[7] Online programs at Wilmington University have received recognition from several major publications. U.S. News and World Report ranks the online program 161st nationally, while a more comprehensive study of online degree programs in 2015 ranked Wilmington University 10th in the nation.[28]

The main campus of Wilmington University is located along U.S. Route 13, just outside historic New Castle, Delaware. The main campus hosts more than 80 degree programs at the undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral levels. The main campus in New Castle is also home to the Wilson Graduate Center, where all of the university's graduate and doctoral degree programs are housed. In addition to classroom facilities, the main campus in New Castle features the Pratt Student center, opened in 2013 after an extensive renovation of a former university gymnasium.

Wilmington University's athletic teams are known as the Wildcats, and are represented by the school's mascot, named "Wiley D. Wildcat." The university's teams compete in NCAA Division II and the Central Atlantic Collegiate Conference for all sports.

Athletic teams at the university are served by the Wilmington University Athletic Complex in Bear, Delaware.[29] Opened in 2013, this sports complex includes outdoor fields as well as an indoor, multi-purpose playing court for basketball and volleyball. The complex provides athletic facilities and a home field to the men's and women's basketball and soccer teams as well as the women's lacrosse and volleyball teams.

The university's present mascot was unveiled in 2009. Following the announcement of the school's new mascot, the university involved students and faculty in a popular poll to suggest and choose a name for this new addition to Wilmington University's athletic presence. In late 2009, it was announced that the name "Wiley D. Wildcat," suggested by one of the students of Wilmington University, had won the poll and would become the mascot's official name.[30] In addition to the mascot's presence at most NCAA Division II athletic events, the Wildcat mascot has become an instrumental part of the university's national-champion cheerleading team.

The university's men's baseball team was named NCAA Division II East Regional champions in 2015 after a historic season.[31] Additionally, the men's golf team earned an NCAA Division II Atlantic/East Super Regional title in both 2012 and 2015.[32]

In addition to its NCAA Division II men's and women's athletic teams, Wilmington University is also home to a successful, co-ed cheerleading team. The university's cheerleading team was named the Universal Cheerleading Association's national champions for five consecutive years between 2012 and 2016.[33][34]

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Liberty Resources, Inc. is a not-for-profit, Consumer-controlled organization that advocates and promotes independent living for all persons with disabilities. As a Center for Independent Living (CIL), Liberty Resources advocates with disabled people, individually and collectively to ensure our civil rights and equal access to all aspects of life in the community.

Liberty Resources must provide four core services: Advocacy, Information and Referral, Peer Support and Skills Training. Click to read more about the core services. In addition to those, a CIL should respond to the unique needs of its community. Liberty Resources is one of the first Centers for Independent Living in Pennsylvania, and has been consistently able to add services to address the needs of our community. Read more about the other services that Liberty Resources has added to its menu.

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The Falkland Islands (; Spanish: Islas Malvinas [malinas]) are an archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean on the Patagonian Shelf. The principal islands are about 300 miles (480km) east of South America's southern Patagonian coast, at a latitude of about 52S. The archipelago, with an area of 4,700 square miles (12,000km2), comprises East Falkland, West Falkland and 776 smaller islands. As a British overseas territory, the Falklands have internal self-governance, and the United Kingdom takes responsibility for their defence and foreign affairs. The islands' capital is Stanley on East Falkland.

Controversy exists over the Falklands' discovery and subsequent colonisation by Europeans. At various times, the islands have had French, British, Spanish, and Argentine settlements. Britain reasserted its rule in 1833, although Argentina maintains its claim to the islands. In April 1982, Argentine forces temporarily occupied the islands. British administration was restored two months later at the end of the Falklands War.

The population (2,932 inhabitants in 2012)[A] primarily consists of native-born Falkland Islanders, the majority of British descent. Other ethnicities include French, Gibraltarian and Scandinavian. Immigration from the United Kingdom, the South Atlantic island of Saint Helena, and Chile has reversed a population decline. The predominant (and official) language is English. Under the British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983, Falkland Islanders are British citizens.

The islands lie on the boundary of the subantarctic oceanic and tundra climate zones, and both major islands have mountain ranges reaching 2,300 feet (700m). They are home to large bird populations, although many no longer breed on the main islands because of competition from introduced species. Major economic activities include fishing, tourism and sheep farming, with an emphasis on high-quality wool exports. Oil exploration, licensed by the Falkland Islands Government, remains controversial as a result of maritime disputes with Argentina.

The Falkland Islands take their name from the Falkland Sound, a strait separating the archipelago's two main islands. The name "Falkland" was applied to the channel by John Strong, captain of an English expedition which landed on the islands in 1690. Strong named the strait in honour of Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount of Falkland, the Treasurer of the Navy who sponsored their journey.[7] The Viscount's title originates from the town of Falkland, Scotland, whose name comes from "folkland" (land held by folk-right). The name was not applied to the islands until 1765, when British captain John Byron of the Royal Navy, claimed them for King George III as "Falkland's Islands".[9] The term "Falklands" is a standard abbreviation used to refer to the islands.

The Spanish name for the archipelago, Islas Malvinas, derives from the French les Malouines the name given to the islands by French explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville in 1764. Bougainville, who founded the islands' first settlement, named the area after the port of Saint-Malo (the point of departure for his ships and colonists).[11] The port, located in the Brittany region of western France, was in turn named after St. Malo (or Maclou), the Christian evangelist who founded the city.

At the twentieth session of the United Nations General Assembly, the Fourth Committee determined that, in all languages other than Spanish, all UN documentation would designate the territory as Falkland Islands (Malvinas). In Spanish, the territory was designated as Islas Malvinas (Falkland Islands). The nomenclature used by the United Nations for statistical processing purposes is Falkland Islands (Malvinas).[14]

Although Fuegians from Patagonia may have visited the Falkland Islands in prehistoric times,[15] the islands were uninhabited at the time of their discovery by Europeans. Claims of discovery date back to the 16th century, but no consensus exists on whether these early explorers discovered the Falklands or other islands in the South Atlantic.[17][B] The first recorded landing on the islands is attributed to English captain John Strong, who, en route to Peru's and Chile's littoral in 1690, discovered the Falkland Sound and noted the islands' water and game.[20]

The Falklands remained uninhabited until the 1764 establishment of Port Louis on East Falkland by French captain Louis Antoine de Bougainville, and the 1766 foundation of Port Egmont on Saunders Island by British captain John MacBride.[C] Whether or not the settlements were aware of each other's existence is debated by historians.[23] In 1766, France surrendered its claim on the Falklands to Spain, which renamed the French colony Puerto Soledad the following year. Problems began when Spain discovered and captured Port Egmont in 1770. War was narrowly avoided by its restitution to Britain in 1771.

Both the British and Spanish settlements coexisted in the archipelago until 1774, when Britain's new economic and strategic considerations led it to voluntarily withdraw from the islands, leaving a plaque claiming the Falklands for King George III. Spain's Viceroyalty of the Ro de la Plata became the only governmental presence in the territory. West Falkland was left abandoned, and Puerto Soledad became mostly a prison camp. Amid the British invasions of the Ro de la Plata during the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, the islands' governor evacuated the archipelago in 1806; Spain's remaining colonial garrison followed suit in 1811, except for gauchos and fishermen who remained voluntarily.

Thereafter, the archipelago was visited only by fishing ships; its political status was undisputed until 1820, when Colonel David Jewett, an American privateer working for the United Provinces of the River Plate, informed anchored ships about Buenos Aires' 1816 claim to Spain's territories in the South Atlantic.[28][D] Since the islands had no permanent inhabitants, in 1823 Buenos Aires granted German-born merchant Luis Vernet permission to conduct fishing activities and exploit feral cattle in the archipelago.[E] Vernet settled at the ruins of Puerto Soledad in 1826, and accumulated resources on the islands until the venture was secure enough to bring settlers and form a permanent colony.[32] Buenos Aires named Vernet military and civil commander of the islands in 1829, and he attempted to regulate sealing to stop the activities of foreign whalers and sealers. Vernet's venture lasted until a dispute over fishing and hunting rights led to a raid by the American warship USS Lexington in 1831,[F] when United States Navy commander Silas Duncan declared the dissolution of the island's government.

Buenos Aires attempted to retain influence over the settlement by installing a garrison, but a mutiny in 1832 was followed the next year by the arrival of British forces who reasserted Britain's rule. The Argentine Confederation (headed by Buenos Aires Governor Juan Manuel de Rosas) protested Britain's actions,[G] and Argentine governments have continued since then to register official protests against Britain.[H] The British troops departed after completing their mission, leaving the area without formal government. Vernet's deputy, the Scotsman Matthew Brisbane, returned to the islands that year to restore the business, but his efforts ended after, amid unrest at Port Louis, gaucho Antonio Rivero led a group of dissatisfied individuals to murder Brisbane and the settlement's senior leaders; survivors hid in a cave on a nearby island until the British returned and restored order. In 1840, the Falklands became a Crown colony, and Scottish settlers subsequently established an official pastoral community. Four years later, nearly everyone relocated to Port Jackson, considered a better location for government, and merchant Samuel Lafone began a venture to encourage British colonisation.[44]

Stanley, as Port Jackson was soon renamed, officially became the seat of government in 1845. Early in its history, Stanley had a negative reputation due to cargo-shipping losses; only in emergencies would ships rounding Cape Horn stop at the port.[46] Nevertheless, the Falklands' geographic location proved ideal for ship repairs and the "Wrecking Trade", the business of selling and buying shipwrecks and their cargoes. Aside from this trade, commercial interest in the archipelago was minimal due to the low-value hides of the feral cattle roaming the pastures. Economic growth began only after the Falkland Islands Company, which bought out Lafone's failing enterprise in 1851,[I] successfully introduced Cheviot sheep for wool farming, spurring other farms to follow suit.[49] The high cost of importing materials, combined with the shortage of labour and consequent high wages, meant the ship repair trade became uncompetitive. After 1870, it declined as the replacement of sail ships by steamships was accelerated by the low cost of coal in South America; by 1914, with the opening of the Panama Canal, the trade effectively ended. In 1881, the Falkland Islands became financially independent of Britain. For more than a century, the Falkland Islands Company dominated the trade and employment of the archipelago; in addition, it owned most housing in Stanley, which greatly benefited from the wool trade with the UK.[49]

In the first half of the 20th century, the Falklands served an important role in Britain's territorial claims to subantarctic islands and a section of Antarctica. The Falklands governed these territories as the Falkland Islands Dependencies starting in 1908, and retained them until their dissolution in 1985. The Falklands also played a minor role in the two world wars as a military base aiding control of the South Atlantic. In the First World War Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914, a Royal Navy fleet defeated an Imperial German squadron. In the Second World War, following the December 1939 Battle of the River Plate, the battle-damaged HMS Exeter steamed to the Falklands for repairs. In 1942, a battalion en route to India was redeployed to the Falklands as a garrison amid fears of a Japanese seizure of the archipelago. After the war ended, the Falklands economy was affected by declining wool prices and the political uncertainty resulting from the revived sovereignty dispute between the United Kingdom and Argentina.[46]

Simmering tensions between the UK and Argentina increased during the second half of the century, when Argentine President Juan Pern asserted sovereignty over the archipelago. The sovereignty dispute intensified during the 1960s, shortly after the United Nations passed a resolution on decolonisation which Argentina interpreted as favourable to its position. In 1965, the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 2065, calling for both states to conduct bilateral negotiations to reach a peaceful settlement of the dispute. From 1966 until 1968, the UK confidentially discussed with Argentina the transfer of the Falklands, assuming its judgement would be accepted by the islanders. An agreement on trade ties between the archipelago and the mainland was reached in 1971 and, consequently, Argentina built a temporary airfield at Stanley in 1972. Nonetheless, Falklander dissent, as expressed by their strong lobby in the UK Parliament, and tensions between the UK and Argentina effectively limited sovereignty negotiations until 1977.

Concerned at the expense of maintaining the Falkland Islands in an era of budget cuts, the UK again considered transferring sovereignty to Argentina in the early Thatcher government.[57] Substantive sovereignty talks again ended by 1981, and the dispute escalated with passing time. In April 1982, the disagreement became an armed conflict when Argentina invaded the Falklands and other British territories in the South Atlantic, briefly occupying them until a UK expeditionary force retook the territories in June.[59] After the war, the United Kingdom expanded its military presence, building RAF Mount Pleasant and increasing the size of its garrison. The war also left some 117 minefields containing nearly 20,000 mines of various types, including anti-vehicle and anti-personnel mines.[61] Due to the large number of deminer casualties, initial attempts to clear the mines ceased in 1983.[61][J]

Based on Lord Shackleton's recommendations, the Falklands diversified from a sheep-based monoculture into an economy of tourism and, with the establishment of the Falklands Exclusive Economic Zone, fisheries.[K] The road network was also made more extensive, and the construction of RAF Mount Pleasant allowed access to long haul flights. Oil exploration has also begun, with indications of possible commercially exploitable deposits in the Falklands basin.[64] Landmine clearance work restarted in 2009, in accordance with the UK's obligations under the Ottawa Treaty, and Sapper Hill Corral was cleared of mines in 2012, allowing access to an important historical landmark for the first time in 30 years.[65][66] Argentina and the UK re-established diplomatic relations in 1990; relations have since deteriorated as neither has agreed on the terms of future sovereignty discussions.[67] Disputes between the governments have led "some analysts [to] predict a growing conflict of interest between Argentina and Great Britain... because of the recent expansion of the fishing industry in the waters surrounding the Falklands".

The Falkland Islands are a self-governing British Overseas Territory.[69] Under the 2009 Constitution, the islands have full internal self-government; the UK is responsible for foreign affairs, retaining the power "to protect UK interests and to ensure the overall good governance of the territory".[70] The Monarch of the United Kingdom is the head of state, and executive authority is exercised on the monarch's behalf by the Governor, who in turn appoints the islands' Chief Executive on the advice of members of the Legislative Assembly.[71] Both the Governor and Chief Executive serve as the head of government. Governor Colin Roberts was appointed in April 2014;[73] Chief Executive Keith Padgett was appointed in March 2012.[74] The UK minister responsible for the Falkland Islands since 2012, Hugo Swire, administers British foreign policy regarding the islands.[75]

The Governor acts on the advice of the islands' Executive Council, composed of the Chief Executive, the Director of Finance and three elected members of the Legislative Assembly (with the Governor as chairman).[71] The Legislative Assembly, a unicameral legislature, consists of the Chief Executive, the Director of Finance and eight members (five from Stanley and three from Camp) elected to four-year terms by universal suffrage.[71] All politicians in the Falkland Islands are independent; no political parties exist on the islands.[76] Since the 2013 general election, members of the Legislative Assembly have received a salary and are expected to work full-time and give up all previously held jobs or business interests.[77]

Due to its link to the UK, the Falklands are part of the overseas countries and territories of the European Union.[78] The islands' judicial system, overseen by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, is largely based on English law, and the constitution binds the territory to the principles of the European Convention on Human Rights.[70] Residents have the right of appeal to the European Court of Human Rights and the Privy Council.[80][81] Law enforcement is the responsibility of the Royal Falkland Islands Police (RFIP), and military defence of the islands is provided by the United Kingdom.[82] A British military garrison is stationed on the islands, and the Falkland Islands government funds an additional company-sized light infantry Falkland Islands Defence Force.[83] The territorial waters of the Falklands extend to 200 nautical miles (370km) from its coastal baselines, based on the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea; this border overlaps with the maritime boundary of Argentina.[84]

The United Kingdom and Argentina both claim the Falkland Islands. The UK's position is that the Falklanders have not indicated a desire for change, and that there are no pending issues to resolve concerning the islands.[86] The UK bases its position on its continuous administration of the islands since 1833 (except for 1982) and the islanders' "right to self-determination as set out in the UN Charter".[87] Argentine policy maintains that Falkland Islanders do not have a right to self-determination, claiming that in 1833 the UK expelled Argentine authorities (and settlers) from the Falklands with a threat of "greater force" and, afterwards, barred Argentines from resettling the islands.[88][89] Argentina posits that it acquired the Falklands from Spain when it achieved independence in 1816, and that the UK illegally occupied them in 1833.[88]

In 2009, British prime minister Gordon Brown had a meeting with Argentine president Cristina Fernndez de Kirchner, and said that there would be no further talks over the sovereignty of the Falklands.[90] In March 2013, the Falkland Islands held a referendum on its political status, with 99.8 percent of voters favoured remaining under British rule.[91][92] Argentina does not recognise the Falkland Islands as a partner in negotiations;[93] consequently, it dismissed the Falkland Islands' sovereignty referendum.[94]

The Falkland Islands have a land area of 4,700 square miles (12,000km2) and a coastline estimated at 800 miles (1,300km).[95] Two main islands, West Falkland and East Falkland, and about 776 smaller islands constitute the archipelago. The islands are predominantly mountainous and hilly,[97] with the major exception the depressed plains of Lafonia (a peninsula forming the southern part of East Falkland). The Falklands are continental crust fragments resulting from the break-up of Gondwana and the opening of the South Atlantic that began 130 million years ago. The islands are located in the South Atlantic Ocean, on the Patagonian Shelf, about 300 miles (480km) east of Patagonia in southern Argentina.

The Falklands are situated approximately at latitude 5140 5300 S and longitude 5740 6200 W. The archipelago's two main islands are separated by the Falkland Sound, and its deep coastal indentations form natural harbours.[102] East Falkland houses Stanley (the capital and largest settlement), the UK military base at RAF Mount Pleasant, and the archipelago's highest point: Mount Usborne, at 2,313 feet (705m). Outside of these significant settlements is the area colloquially known as "Camp", which is derived from the Spanish term for countryside (Campo).

The climate of the islands is cold, windy and humid maritime. Variability of daily weather is typical throughout the archipelago. Rainfall is common over half of the year, averaging 610 millimetres (24in) in Stanley, and sporadic light snowfall occurs nearly all year.[97] The temperature is generally between 21.1 and 11.1C (70.0 and 12.0F) in Stanley, but can vary to 9C (48F) early in the year and 1C (30F) in July. Strong westerly winds and cloudy skies are common.[97] Although numerous storms are recorded each month, conditions are normally calm.

The Falkland Islands are a biogeographical part of the mild Antarctic zone, with strong connections to the flora and fauna of Patagonia in mainland South America.[106] Land birds make up most of the Falklands' avifauna; 63 species breed on the islands, including 16 endemic species. There is also abundant arthropod diversity on the islands. The Falklands' flora consists of 163 native vascular species. The islands' only native terrestrial mammal, the warrah, was hunted to extinction by European settlers.

The islands are frequented by marine mammals, such as the southern elephant seal and the South American fur seal, and various types of cetaceans; offshore islands house the rare striated caracara. The Falklands are also home to five different penguin species and a few of the largest albatross colonies on the planet.[111] Endemic fish around the islands are primarily from the genus Galaxias. The Falklands are treeless and have a wind-resistant vegetation predominantly composed of a variety of dwarf shrubs.

Virtually the entire land area of the islands is used as pasture for sheep.[2] Introduced species include reindeer, hares, rabbits, Patagonian foxes, brown rats and cats. The detrimental impact several of these species have caused to native flora and fauna has led authorities to attempt to contain, remove or exterminate invasive species such as foxes, rabbits and rats. Endemic land animals have been the most affected by introduced species. The extent of human impact on the Falklands is unclear, since there is little long-term data on habitat change.[106]

The economy of the Falkland Islands is ranked the 222nd largest out of 229 in the world by GDP (PPP), but ranks 10th worldwide by GDP (PPP) per capita.[2] The unemployment rate was 4.1 percent in 2010, and inflation was last calculated at 1.2 percent rate in 2003.[2] Based on 2010 data, the islands have a high Human Development Index of 0.874 and a moderate Gini coefficient for income inequality of 34.17. The local currency is the Falkland Islands pound, which is pegged to the British pound sterling.[116]

Economic development was advanced by ship resupplying and sheep farming for high-quality wool.[117] The main sheep breeds in the Falkland Islands are Polwarth and Corriedale.[118] During the 1980s, although synthetic fibres and ranch underinvestment hurt the sheep-farming sector, the government established a major revenue stream with the establishment of an exclusive economic zone and the sale of fishing licenses to "anybody wishing to fish within this zone". Since the end of the Falklands War in 1982, the islands' economic activity has increasingly focused on oil field exploration and tourism.

The port city of Stanley has regained the islands' economic focus, with an increase in population as workers migrate from Camp. Fear of dependence on fishing licences and threats from overfishing, illegal fishing and fish market price fluctuations have increased interest on oil drilling as an alternative source of revenue; exploration efforts have yet to find "exploitable reserves". Development projects in education and sports have been funded by the Falklands government, without aid from the United Kingdom.

The primary sector of the economy accounts for most of the Falkland Islands' gross domestic product, with the fishing industry alone contributing between 50% and 60% of annual GDP; agriculture also contributes significantly to GDP and employs about a tenth of the population.[122] A little over a quarter of the workforce serves the Falkland Islands government, making it the archipelago's largest employer.[123] Tourism, part of the service economy, has been spurred by increased interest in Antarctic exploration and the creation of direct air links with the United Kingdom and South America.[124] Tourists, mostly cruise ship passengers, are attracted by the archipelago's wildlife and environment, as well as activities such as fishing and wreck diving; the majority are based in accommodation found in Stanley.[125] The islands' major exports include wool, hides, venison, fish and squid; its main imports include fuel, building materials and clothing.[2]

The Falkland Islands are a homogeneous society, with the majority of inhabitants descended from Scottish and Welsh immigrants who settled the territory in 1833.[L] The 2006 census listed some Falklands residents as descendants of French, Gibraltarians and Scandinavians.[127] That census indicated that one-third of residents were born on the archipelago, with foreign-born residents assimilated into local culture.[128] The legal term for the right of residence is "belonging to the islands".[71] The British Nationality Act of 1983 gave British citizenship to Falkland Islanders.

A significant population decline affected the archipelago in the twentieth century, with many young islanders moving overseas in search of education, a modern lifestyle, and better job opportunities,[129] particularly to the British city of Southampton, which came to be nicknamed "Stanley north".[130] In recent years, the island's population decline has steadied, thanks to immigrants from the United Kingdom, Saint Helena, and Chile. In the 2012 census, a majority of residents listed their nationality as Falkland Islander (59 percent), followed by British (29 percent), Saint Helenian (9.8 percent), and Chilean (5.4 percent).[1] A small number of Argentines also live on the islands.[132]

The Falkland Islands have a low population density. According to the 2012 census, the average daily population of the Falklands was 2,932, excluding military personnel serving in the archipelago and their dependents.[M] A 2012 report counted 1,300 uniformed personnel and 50 British Ministry of Defence civil servants present in the Falklands.[123] Stanley (with 2,121 residents) is the most-populous location on the archipelago, followed by Mount Pleasant (369 residents, primarily air-base contractors) and Camp (351 residents).[1] The islands' age distribution is skewed towards working age (2060). Males outnumber females (53 to 47 percent), and this discrepancy is most prominent in the 2060 age group.[127] In the 2006 census most islanders identified themselves as Christian (67.2 percent), followed by those who refused to answer or had no religious affiliation (31.5 percent). The remaining 1.3 percent (39 people) were adherents of other faiths.[127]

Education in the Falkland Islands, which follows England's system, is free and compulsory for residents aged between 5 and 16 years.[134] Primary education is available at Stanley, RAF Mount Pleasant (for children of service personnel) and a number of rural settlements. Secondary education is only available in Stanley, which offers boarding facilities and 12 subjects to General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) level. Students aged 16 or older may study at colleges in England for their GCE Advanced Level or vocational qualifications. The Falkland Islands government pays for older students to attend institutions of higher education, usually in the United Kingdom.[134]

Falklands culture is "based on the British culture brought with the settlers from the British Isles", although it has been influenced by the cultures of Hispanic South America. Some terms and place names used by the islands' former Gaucho inhabitants are still applied in local speech. The Falklands' predominant and official language is English, with the foremost dialect being British English; nonetheless, inhabitants also speak Spanish and other languages. According to naturalist Will Wagstaff, "the Falkland Islands are a very social place, and stopping for a chat is a way of life".

The islands have two weekly newspapers: Teaberry Express and The Penguin News, and television and radio broadcasts generally feature programming from the United Kingdom. Wagstaff describes local cuisine as "very British in character with much use made of the homegrown vegetables, local lamb, mutton, beef, and fish". Common between meals are "home made cakes and biscuits with tea or coffee". Social activities are, according to Wagstaff, "typical of that of a small British town with a variety of clubs and organisations covering many aspects of community life".

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Coordinates: 5141S 5910W / 51.683S 59.167W / -51.683; -59.167

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In Lung Cancer, Not All HER2 Alterations Are Created Equal Jan. 28, 2016 Study shows two distinct causes of HER2 activation in lung cancer: mutation of the gene and amplification of the gene. In patient samples of lung adenocarcinoma, 3 percent were found to have HER2 ... read more Dec. 12, 2015 Results from a long-term clinical trial conducted by cancer researchers show that combining radiation treatment with 'suicide gene therapy' provides a safe and effective one-two punch ... read more Gene Therapy Used to Extend Estrogen's Protective Effects on Memory Dec. 8, 2015 The hormone estrogen helps protect memory and promote a healthy brain, but this effect wanes as women age, and even estrogen replacement therapy stops working in humans after age 65. Now researchers ... read more Shrinking Tumors With an RNA Triple-Helix Hydrogel Glue Dec. 7, 2015 An efficient and effective delivery vehicle for gene therapy has been developed by researchers who have used it to shrink tumors by nearly 90 percent in a pre-clinical model of triple-negative breast ... read more Characteristics That May Increase a Breast Cancer Survivor's Risk of Developing Leukemia Following Treatment Identified Dec. 7, 2015 A new analysis indicates that certain characteristics may increase a breast cancer survivor's risk of developing leukemia after undergoing chemotherapy and/or radiation. The findings are a first ... read more Early Gene Therapy Results in Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome Promising Dec. 6, 2015 Researchers reported promising preliminary outcomes for the first four children enrolled in a US gene therapy trial for Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome (WAS), a life-threatening genetic blood and immune ... read more Gene Therapy Restores Immunity in Children and Young Adults With Rare Immunodeficiency Dec. 6, 2015 Gene therapy can safely rebuild the immune systems of older children and young adults with X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID-X1), a rare inherited disorder that primarily affects males, ... read more MECP2 Duplication Syndrome Is Reversible, Study Suggests Nov. 25, 2015 The MECP2 Duplication Syndrome is reversible, say researchers. Importantly their study paves the way for treating duplication patients with an antisense oligonucleotide ... read more Gene Therapy: Promising Candidate for Cystic Fibrosis Treatment Nov. 16, 2015 An improved gene therapy treatment can cure mice with cystic fibrosis (CF). Cell cultures from CF patients, too, respond well to the treatment, suggest new encouraging ... read more Link Found Between Genetic Mutations, Proliferation, Immune Surveillance in Lung Cancer Nov. 11, 2015 There are four gene mutations (KRAS, TP53, STK11, and EGFR) that most commonly occur in lung cancer; however, there are limited effective therapies to target these mutations. With this in mind, ... read more Nov. 9, 2015 Genome editing techniques for blood stem cells just got better, thanks to a team of researchers. In a new article, they describe a new, more efficient way to edit genes in blood-forming or ... read more Nov. 2, 2015 Eye drops have been used to deliver the gene for a growth factor called granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) in a mouse model of brain ischemia. The treatment led to a significant reduction ... read more Oct. 21, 2015 Delivering the hormone leptin directly to the brain through gene therapy aids weight loss without the significant side effect of bone loss, according to new ... read more New Study Explains Why You Bulk Up With Resistance Training, Not Endurance Training Oct. 20, 2015 Resistance and endurance exercises activate the same gene, PGC-1?, but the processes stimulated for the muscles to adapt depend on the exercise type. A new study offers insight into why the physical ... read more Researchers Identify Gene That Increases Risk of Sudden Death in Patients With Mild Epilepsy Oct. 15, 2015 A gene mutation that increases the risk of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) in patients with mild forms of the disease has been discovered by a group of ... read more Oct. 8, 2015 Compared with direct gene injection, cell-mediated GDNF gene delivery led to considerably more pronounced preservation of myelinated fibers in the remote segments of the spinal cord (5 vs 3 mm from ... read more 'Alarm Clock' of a Leukemia-Causing Oncogene Identified Oct. 8, 2015 Mutations in DNMT3A gene cause MEIS1 activacion, triggering leukemia, a research team ... read more Oct. 5, 2015 A novel mouse model for the vision disorder Leber hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) has been developed by researchers who have found that they can use gene therapy to improve visual function in the ... read more Genetic Polymorphism Associated With Lung Cancer Progression Oct. 5, 2015 Genetic polymorphisms associated with cancer progression lead to variations in gene expression and may serve as prognostic markers for lung cancer, researchers show. They found that in patients with ... read more New Hope for Lou: Unexplored Therapeutic Targets for ALS Sep. 3, 2015 No cures exist for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and the only approved therapy slows the progression by only a few months. A new study identifies a promising unexplored avenue of treatment for ... read more

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Gene Therapy News -- ScienceDaily

Genetics Conferences | Human Genetics Conferences | Europe …

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Track 1:Cellular and Molecular Genetics

The study of genetics at the level of the basic building blocks of cells and at the DNA level. Cells are as complex as they are tiny and much is still unknown about the inner workings of these building blocks of life. If you'd like to log hours in a lab and use advanced equipment to help advance the understanding of how cells work, studies in cellular and molecular biology could be for you. Biology is the study of living things, and cellular or molecular biology studies living things on the smallest possible scale. To prepare for a career in cellular or molecular biology, individuals must have a strong understanding of chemistry, statistics and physics. The research of cellular and molecular biologists is integral to things like the development of new medications, the protection of aquatic ecosystems and the improvement of agricultural products. A student pursuing an undergraduate or graduate degree in cellular and molecular Genetics spends time divided between classroom lectures and practical laboratory instruction. Research is an important part of this field, and students must be comfortable using highly advanced pieces of equipment to conduct experiments. In addition, cellular and molecular biology programs teach students about cellular structures and their functions, how cells make and use things like proteins and enzymes and much more. Courses covered in a molecular or cellular biology degree program may include microbiology, epidemiology, microscopy and molecular genetics. The following Study.com articles offer more details about this field of study.

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International Conference on Clinical AndMolecular Genetics, 28-30 November 2016 (Chicago, USA); 6thInternational Conference on Genomics &Pharmacogenomics, 22-24 September 2016 (Berlin, Germany); World Congress onHuman Genetics, 31October 02November 2016 (Valencia, Spain); International Conference on Genetic Counselling AndGenomic Medicine, 11-12 August, 2016 (Birmingham, UK); Cell &Gene TherapyCongress, 19-21 May 2016 ( San Antonio, USA); 2015 Midwest Conference onCell Therapy& Regenerative Medicine September 18-19 2015 (Kansas City, Missouri); 2nd Cell &Gene TherapyConference 9-10 September 2015 (Philadelphia, United States); Cell &Gene TherapyEurope 29-30 September 2015 (Barcelona, Spain); Cell Manufacturing andGene TherapyCongress 2015 2-3 December 2015 (Brussels, Belgium).

Track 2:Clinical Genetics

Clinical Genetics is the medical specialty which provides a diagnostic service and "genetic counselling" for individuals or families with, or at risk of, conditions which may have a genetic basis. Genetic disorders can affect any body system and any age group. The aim of Genetic Services is to help those affected by, or at risk of, a genetic disorder to live and reproduce as normally as possible. In addition a large number of individuals with birth defects and/or learning disabilities are referred and investigated for genetic factors. Individuals identified through childhood or pregnancy screening programmes also require genetic services. In the future, as the genetic contributions to common later-onset disorders such as diabetes and coronary heart disease are identified, genetic services may be required for those at high risk. Testing for genetic factors that affect drug prescribing will also increasingly become an important activity.

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World Congress onHuman Genetics, 31 October 02 November 2016 (Valencia, Spain); International Conference on Clinical andMolecular Genetics, 28-30 November 2016 (Chicago, USA); 6thInternational Conference on Genomics &Pharmacogenomics, 22-24 September 2016 (Berlin, Germany); International Conference on Genetic Counselling AndGenomic Medicine, 11-12 August, 2016 (Birmingham, UK); Cell &Gene TherapyCongress, 19-21 May 2016 ( San Antonio, USA); The 44nd Biennial American Cytogenetics Conference,16-18 May, 2016 (Oregon, USA); The European Human Genetics Conference 2016, 21-24 May, 2016 (Barcelona, Spain); 4th International workshop on Cancer Genetic & Cytogenetic Diagnostics, 6-8 April, 2016, (Nijmegen, Netherlands); Chromatin and Epigenetics, 20-24 Mar 2016 (Whistler, Canada); Game of Epigenomics Conference, 24 - 26 April 2016 (Dubrovnik, Croatia)

Track 3:Genomics: Disease & Evolution

Genomicsis a discipline ingeneticsthat appliesrecombinant DNA,DNA sequencingmethods, andbioinformaticsto sequence, assemble, and analyze the function and structure ofgenomes(thecompleteset of DNA within a single cell of an organism).Advances in genomics have triggered a revolution in discovery-based research to understand even the most complex biological systems such as the brain.The field includes efforts to determine the entireDNA sequenceof organisms and fine-scalegenetic mapping. The field also includes studies of intragenomic phenomena such asheterosis,epistasis,pleiotropyand other interactions betweenlociandalleleswithin the genome.In contrast, the investigation of the roles and functions of single genes is a primary focus ofmolecular biologyorgeneticsand is a common topic of modern medical and biological research. Research of single genes does not fall into the definition of genomics unless the aim of this genetic, pathway, and functional information analysis is to elucidate its effect on, place in, and response to the entire genome's networks.

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Track 4: Cancer Genetics:

Canceris agenetic disorderin which the normal control ofcell growthis lost.Cancer geneticsis now one of the fastest expandingmedical specialties. At themolecularlevel, cancer is caused bymutation(s)inDNA, which result in aberrantcellproliferation. Most of these mutations areacquiredand occur insomatic cells. However, some peopleinherit mutation(s) in thegerm line. The mutation(s) occur in two classes of cellulargenes:oncogenesandtumor suppressor genes. Under normal conditions, tumor suppressor genes regulate cellular differentiation and suppression of proliferation. Mutations in these genes result in unchecked cellular proliferation resulting in tumors with abnormalcell cyclesand tumor proliferation. The tumor suppressor genes contribute to cancer by the inactivating ofloss of function mutation.

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Track 5:Stem cells and Regenerative Medicine

Many of the stem cells being studied are referred to aspluripotent, meaning they can give rise to any of the cell types in the body but they cannot give rise on their own to an entirely new body. (Only the earliest embryonic cells, which occur just after fertilization, can give rise to a whole other organism by themselves.) Other stem cells, such as the ones found in the adult body, aremultipotent, meaning they can develop into a limited number of different tissue types. One of the most common stem cell treatments being studied is a procedure that extracts a few stem cells from a person's body and grows them in large quantities in the laboratorywhat scientists refer to as expanding the number of stem cells. Once a sufficient number have been produced in this manner, the investigators inject them back into the patient. You could say that medicine up until now has been all about replacements. If your heart valve isn't working, you replace it with another valve, say from a pig. With regenerative medicine, you're treating the cause and using your own cells to perform the replacement. The hope is that by regenerating the tissue, you're causing the repairs to grow so that it's like normal.

Genetic disorders may or may not be heritable, i.e., passed down from the parents' genes. In non-heritable genetic disorders, defects may be caused by new mutations or changes to the DNA

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Track 6:Cancer and Genome Integrity

The research program in the Genome Integrity is focused on the exploration of the causes and effects of genomic instability, mechanisms of DNA repair and the study of DNA repair breakdown as an initiating or protective event in aging and cancers. The program will emphasize a mechanistic understanding of the pathways that maintain genomic integrity, the intersection of these pathways with normal cellular physiology and cancer and the application of these insights to the development of new therapeutic strategies.The Genome integrity has made major contributions towards a detailed understanding of DNA repair pathway selection as a primary influence on genomic stability and drug resistance/sensitivity in breast and ovarian cancers and the influential role of DNA repair proteins in the promotion of specific hematological malignancies

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Track 7:Diabetes and Obesity

The UK is officially the 'fattest' country in Europe, with approximately1 in 5adults overweight and one in every 15 obese. Over the next 20 years, the number of obese adults in the country is forecast to soar by a staggering 73% to 26 million people. According to health experts, such a rise would result in more than a million extra cases oftype 2 diabetes,heart diseaseandcancer. Obesity is also no longer a condition that just affects older people, although the likelihood does increase with age, and increasing numbers of young people have been diagnosed with obesity. While the exact causes of diabetes are still not fully understood, it is known that factors up the risk of developing different types of diabetes mellitus.For type 2 diabetes, this includes being overweight or obese (having a body mass index - BMI - of 30 or greater).In fact, obesity is believed to account for 80-85% of the risk of developing type 2 diabetes, while recent research suggests that obese people are up to 80 times more likely to develop type 2 diabetes than those with aBMI of less than 22.

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Track 8:Congenital disorders

Congenital disorder, also known ascongenital disease,birth defectoranomaly is a condition existing at or beforebirth regardless of cause. Of these diseases, those characterized by structural deformities are termed "congenital anomalies" and involve defects in a developingfetus. Birth defects vary widely in cause and symptoms. Any substance that causes birth defects is known as ateratogen. Some disorders can be detected before birth throughprenatal diagnosis(screening). Birth defects are present in about 3% of newborns in USA.Congenital anomalies resulted in about 632,000 deaths per year in 2013 down from 751,000 in 1990.[9]The type with the greatest numbers of deaths arecongenital heart disease(323,000), followed byneural tube defects(69,000).

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Track 9:Cytogenetics

Cytogeneticsis a branch ofgeneticsthat is concerned with the study of the structure and function of the cell, especially the chromosomes. It includes routine analysis ofG-bandedchromosomes, other cytogenetic banding techniques, as well asmolecular cytogeneticssuch asfluorescentin situhybridization(FISH) andcomparative genomic hybridization(CGH). Chromosomes were first observed in plant cells byKarl Wilhelm von Ngeliin 1842. Their behavior in animal (salamander) cells was described byWalther Flemming, the discoverer ofmitosis, in 1882. The name was coined by another German anatomist,von Waldeyerin 1888.

The next stage took place after the development of genetics in the early 20th century, when it was appreciated that the set of chromosomes (thekaryotype) was the carrier of the genes. Levitsky seems to have been the first to define the karyotype as thephenotypicappearance of thesomaticchromosomes, in contrast to theirgeniccontents. Investigation into the human karyotype took many years to settle the most basic question: how many chromosomes does a normaldiploidhuman cell contain? In 1912,Hans von Winiwarterreported 47 chromosomes inspermatogoniaand 48 inoogonia, concluding anXX/XOsex determinationmechanism. Painterin 1922 was not certain whether the diploid number of man was 46 or 48, at first favoring 46.He revised his opinion later from 46 to 48, and he correctly insisted on man having anXX/XYsystem. Considering their techniques, these results were quite remarkable.

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Track 10:Transplantation

Transplantation is the transfer (engraftment) of human cells, tissues or organs from a donor to a recipient with the aim of restoring function(s) in the body. When transplantation is performed between different species, e.g. animal to human, it is named xenotransplantation. Development of the field of organ and tissue transplantation has accelerated remarkably since the human major histocompatibility complex (MHC) was discovered in 1967. Matching of donor and recipient for MHC antigens has been shown to have a significant positive effect on graft acceptance. The roles of the different components of the immune system involved in the tolerance or rejection of grafts and in graft-versus-host disease have been clarified. These components include: antibodies, antigen presenting cells, helper and cytotoxic T cell subsets, immune cell surface molecules, signaling mechanisms and cytokines that they release. The development of pharmacologic and biological agents that interfere with the alloimmune response and graft rejection has had a crucial role in the success of organ transplantation Combinations of these agents work synergistically, leading to lower doses of immunosuppressive drugs and reduced toxicity. Reports of significant numbers of successful solid organ transplants include those of the kidneys, liver, heart and lung. The use of bone marrow transplantation for hematological diseases, particularly hematological malignancies and primary immunodeficiencies, has become the treatment of choice in many of these conditions

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Track 11:Neurodevelopmental disorders

Neurodevelopmental disordersare impairments of the growth and development of the brain orcentral nervous system. A narrower use of the term refers to a disorder of brain functionthat affectsemotion,learning ability,self-controlandmemoryand that unfolds as the individualgrows. The term is sometimes erroneously used as an exclusive synonym forautismandautism spectrumdisorders. The development of the brain is orchestrated, tightly regulated, and genetically encoded process with clear influence from the environment. This suggests that any deviation from this program early in life can result in neurodevelopmental disorders and, depending on specific timing, might lead to distinct pathology later in life. Because of that, there are many causes of neurodevelopmental disorder, which can range from deprivation,geneticandmetabolic diseases, immune disorders,infectious diseases,nutritionalfactors, physical trauma, and toxic and environmental factors. Some neurodevelopmental disorderssuch asautismand otherpervasive developmental disordersare considered multifactorialsyndromes(with many causes but more specific neurodevelopmental manifestation).

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International Conference on Clinical andMolecular Genetics, 28-30 November 2016 (Chicago, USA); 6thInternational Conference on Genomics &Pharmacogenomics, 22-24 September 2016 (Berlin, Germany); World Congress onHuman Genetics, 31 October 02 November 2016 (Valencia, Spain); International Conference on Genetic Counselling andGenomic Medicine, 11-12 August, 2016 (Birmingham, UK); Cell &Gene TherapyCongress, 19-21 May 2016 ( San Antonio, USA); Game ofEpigenomicsConference, 24 - 26 April 2016 (Dubrovnik, Croatia); The 44nd Biennial AmericanCytogeneticsConference,16-18 May, 2016 (Oregon, USA); The EuropeanHuman GeneticsConference 2016, 21-24 May, 2016 (Barcelona, Spain); 4thInternational workshop onCancer Genetic&CytogeneticDiagnostics, 6-8 April, 2016, (Nijmegen, Netherlands); Chromatin andEpigenetics, 20-24 Mar 2016 (Whistler, Canada)

Track12:Pharmacogenetics

Pharmacogeneticsis the study of inheritedgeneticdifferences in drugmetabolic pathwayswhich can affect individual responses to drugs, both in terms of therapeutic effect as well as adverse effects.The term pharmacogenetics is often used interchangeably with the termpharmacogenomicswhich also investigates the role of acquired and inherited genetic differences in relation to drug response and drug behavior through a systematic examination of genes, gene products, and inter- and intra-individual variation in gene expression and function. In oncology,pharmacogeneticshistorically is the study ofgerm line mutations(e.g.,single-nucleotide polymorphismsaffecting genes coding for liver enzymes responsible for drug deposition andpharmacokinetics), whereaspharmacogenomicsrefers tosomatic mutationsintumoralDNA leading to alteration in drug response (e.g.,KRASmutations in patients treated withanti-Her1biologics).

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International Conference on Clinical andMolecular Genetics, 28-30 November 2016 (Chicago, USA); 6thInternational Conference on Genomics &Pharmacogenomics, 22-24 September 2016 (Berlin, Germany); World Congress onHuman Genetics, 31 October 02 November 2016 (Valencia, Spain); International Conference on Genetic Counselling andGenomic Medicine, 11-12 August, 2016 (Birmingham, UK); Cell &Gene TherapyCongress, 19-21 May 2016 ( San Antonio, USA); Game ofEpigenomicsConference, 24 - 26 April 2016 (Dubrovnik, Croatia); The 44nd Biennial AmericanCytogeneticsConference,16-18 May, 2016 (Oregon, USA); The EuropeanHuman GeneticsConference 2016, 21-24 May, 2016 (Barcelona, Spain); 4thInternational workshop onCancer Genetic&CytogeneticDiagnostics, 6-8 April, 2016, (Nijmegen, Netherlands); Chromatin andEpigenetics, 20-24 Mar 2016 (Whistler, Canada)

Track13:Pharmacogenomics

Pharmacogenomics is the study of how genes affect a persons response to drugs. This relatively new field combines pharmacology (the science of drugs) and genomics (the study of genes and their functions) to develop effective, safe medications and doses that will be tailored to a persons genetic makeup. Many drugs that are currently available are one size fits all, but they dont work the same way for everyone. It can be difficult to predict who will benefit from a medication, who will not respond at all, and who will experience negative side effects (called adverse drug reactions). Adverse drug reactions are a significant cause of hospitalizations and deaths in the United States. With the knowledge gained from the Human Genome Project, researchers are learning how inherited differences in genes affect the bodys response to medications. These genetic differences will be used to predict whether a medication will be effective for a particular person and to help prevent adverse drug reactions.The field of pharmacogenomics is still in its infancy. Its use is currently quite limited, but new approaches are under study in clinical trials. In the future, pharmacogenomics will allow the development of tailored drugs to treat a wide range of health problems, including cardiovascular disease,Alzheimer disease, cancer, HIV/AIDS, and asthma.

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International Conference on Clinical andMolecular Genetics, 28-30 November 2016 (Chicago, USA); 6thInternational Conference on Genomics &Pharmacogenomics, 22-24 September 2016 (Berlin, Germany); World Congress onHuman Genetics, 31 October 02 November 2016 (Valencia, Spain); International Conference on Genetic Counselling andGenomic Medicine, 11-12 August, 2016 (Birmingham, UK); Cell &Gene TherapyCongress, 19-21 May 2016 ( San Antonio, USA); Game ofEpigenomicsConference, 24 - 26 April 2016 (Dubrovnik, Croatia); The 44nd Biennial AmericanCytogeneticsConference,16-18 May, 2016 (Oregon, USA); The EuropeanHuman GeneticsConference 2016, 21-24 May, 2016 (Barcelona, Spain); 4thInternational workshop onCancer Genetic&CytogeneticDiagnostics, 6-8 April, 2016, (Nijmegen, Netherlands); Chromatin andEpigenetics, 20-24 Mar 2016 (Whistler, Canada)

Track14:Drug discovery

Driven by chemistry but increasingly guided by pharmacology and the clinical sciences,drugresearch has contributed more to the progress of medicine during the past century than any other scientific factor. Improving the science ofdrug developmentand regulation is important in fulfilling the public health. The advent of molecular biology and, in particular, of genomic sciences is having a deep impact ondrug discovery. Emphasis is placed on the contrast between the academic and industrial research operating environments, which can influence the effectiveness of research collaboration between the two constituencies, but which plays such an important role indrug innovation. The strategic challenges that research directors face are also emphasized.

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International Conference on Clinical andMolecular Genetics, 28-30 November 2016 (Chicago, USA); 6thInternational Conference on Genomics &Pharmacogenomics, 22-24 September 2016 (Berlin, Germany); World Congress onHuman Genetics, 31 October 02 November 2016 (Valencia, Spain); International Conference on Genetic Counselling andGenomic Medicine, 11-12 August, 2016 (Birmingham, UK); Cell &Gene TherapyCongress, 19-21 May 2016 ( San Antonio, USA); Game ofEpigenomicsConference, 24 - 26 April 2016 (Dubrovnik, Croatia); The 44nd Biennial AmericanCytogeneticsConference,16-18 May, 2016 (Oregon, USA); The EuropeanHuman GeneticsConference 2016, 21-24 May, 2016 (Barcelona, Spain); 4thInternational workshop onCancer Genetic&CytogeneticDiagnostics, 6-8 April, 2016, (Nijmegen, Netherlands); Chromatin andEpigenetics, 20-24 Mar 2016 (Whistler, Canada)

Track15:Bioinformatics in Human Genetics

Recent developments, including next-generation sequencing (NGS), bio-ontologies and the Semantic Web, and the growing role of hospital information technology (IT) systems and electronic health records, amass ever-increasing amounts of data before human genetics scientists and clinicians. However, they have ever-improving tools to analyze those data for research and clinical care. Correspondingly, the field of bioinformatics is turning to research questions in the field of human genetics, and the field of human genetics is making greater use of bioinformatic algorithms and tools. The choice of "Bioinformatics and Human Genetics" as the topic of this special issue of Human Mutation reflects this new importance of bioinformatics and medical informatics in human genetics. Experts from among the attendees of the Paris 2010 Human Variome Project symposium provide a survey of some of the "hot" computational topics over the next decade. These experts identify the promise-what human geneticists who are not themselves bioinformaticians stand to gain-as well as the challenges and unmet needs that are likely to represent fruitful areas of research.

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International Conference on Clinical andMolecular Genetics, 28-30 November 2016 (Chicago, USA); 6thInternational Conference on Genomics &Pharmacogenomics, 22-24 September 2016 (Berlin, Germany); World Congress onHuman Genetics, 31 October 02 November 2016 (Valencia, Spain); International Conference on Genetic Counselling andGenomic Medicine, 11-12 August, 2016 (Birmingham, UK); Cell &Gene TherapyCongress, 19-21 May 2016 ( San Antonio, USA); Game ofEpigenomicsConference, 24 - 26 April 2016 (Dubrovnik, Croatia); The 44nd Biennial AmericanCytogeneticsConference,16-18 May, 2016 (Oregon, USA); The EuropeanHuman GeneticsConference 2016, 21-24 May, 2016 (Barcelona, Spain); 4thInternational workshop onCancer Genetic&CytogeneticDiagnostics, 6-8 April, 2016, (Nijmegen, Netherlands); Chromatin andEpigenetics, 20-24 Mar 2016 (Whistler, Canada)

Track16:Anthropology

Anthropologyis the study ofhumanity.Its main subdivisions aresocialandcultural anthropology, which describes the workings of societies around the world,linguistic anthropology, which investigates the influence of language in social life, and biological or physical anthropology. Anthropology concerns long-term development of the human organism.Archaeology, which studies past human cultures through investigation of physical evidence, is thought of as a branch of anthropology in the United States, although in Europe, it is viewed as a discipline in its own right, or grouped under related disciplines such as history.

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International Conference on Clinical andMolecular Genetics, 28-30 November 2016 (Chicago, USA); 6thInternational Conference on Genomics &Pharmacogenomics, 22-24 September 2016 (Berlin, Germany); World Congress onHuman Genetics, 31 October 02 November 2016 (Valencia, Spain); International Conference on Genetic Counselling andGenomic Medicine, 11-12 August, 2016 (Birmingham, UK); Cell &Gene TherapyCongress, 19-21 May 2016 ( San Antonio, USA); Game ofEpigenomicsConference, 24 - 26 April 2016 (Dubrovnik, Croatia); The 44nd Biennial AmericanCytogeneticsConference,16-18 May, 2016 (Oregon, USA); The EuropeanHuman GeneticsConference 2016, 21-24 May, 2016 (Barcelona, Spain); 4thInternational workshop onCancer Genetic&CytogeneticDiagnostics, 6-8 April, 2016, (Nijmegen, Netherlands); Chromatin andEpigenetics, 20-24 Mar 2016 (Whistler, Canada)

1. Scope and Importance of Human Genetics:

Scope: The Scope of the conference is to gather all the Doctors, Researchers, Business Delegates and Scientists to approach and deliver all the attendees about the latest scientific advancements on the respective sphere. This Human Genetics Conference is the premier event focusing on understanding individual and organizational behaviour and decision-making related to genetics and molecular biology, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, medicals and academia.

Importance: Conference on Human Genetics is a much celebrated conference which basically deals with the latest research and developments in the sphere of genetics and molecular biology. This Conference will provide a perfect platform to all the International mix of leading Research Scholars, and Scientists achieved eminence in their field of study, research academicians from the universities and research institutions, industrial research professionals and business associates along with Ph.D. Students to come and inform all the attendees about the latest scientific advancements on the respective sphere.

2. Why its in Valencia, Spain?

In the last decade, pre-implantation genetic diagnosis and screening (PGD; PGS) have become widely used in IVF treatments: in 2005 nearly 6000 PGD/PGS (5 per cent of all IVF cycles) had been performed in Europe. The diffusion of these technologies, however, is not homogenous; whilst in some countries PGD is prohibited and in others is hardly implemented, Spain performs 33 per cent of all the PGD/PGS (ESHRE 2007). Combining the analysis of juridical documents with semi-structured interviews to past and present members of the Spanish National Assisted Reproduction Committee (CNRHA), this study suggests that the remarkable diffusion of PGD/PGS in Spain may be largely due to the interaction between the growing momentum enjoyed by embryonic stem cell research and a vibrant expansion of IVF business along the Mediterranean coast. In this process, genetic issues per se seem to play a minor role, although the prevention of genetic diseases constitutes the formal rationale for the extension of PGD from monogenic, early onset diseases to polygenic, late-onset ones.

3. Member Associated with Human Genetics Research

The Members who are associated with Genetics Research includes Societies, Associations, Institutes, Universities and other Research Organizations.

A. City Statistics: Approximately, more than 2876 members involved in Genetics and related researches in the city of Valencia.

B. Country Statistics: Approximately, more than 17775 members involved in Genetics and related researches in Spain.

C. Worldwide statistics: Europe: Approximately, more than 56083 members involved in Genetics and related researches. USA: Approximately, more than 24285 members involved in Genetics and related researches. Global: Approximately, 1291100 members involved in Genetics and related researches.

4. Societies Associated with Human Genetics Research

Some of the renowned societies involved in genetic research

A. Societies in Valencia and Spain:

B. Societies in Europe:

C. Societies in Globe:

5. Industries Associated with Human Genetics Research:

The Major Industries or Companies and laboratories associated with Genetics research are listed below:

A. By City - Some of the major companies in Valencia:

Sistemas Genomicos, Reproductive Genetics Unit, Paterna (Valencia); Instituto de Medicina Genmica, IMEGEN, Paterna (Valencia); LifeSequencing; Oncovision etc.

B. By Country Some of the major companies in Spain:

AC-Gen Reading Life SL, Valladolid; Cidegen, SL, Salamanca; Diagnostico Genetico Canarias, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria; Genetadi Biotech, GENETADI, Derio-BILBAO (SPAIN); GENETAQ, Molecular Genetics Centre, Malaga; Genetracer Biotech, Santander; Genyca, Madrid; Health in Code S.L., Corua; Innovagenomics S.L, Innovagenomics, Salamanca; Diagnostics in Iron Metabolism Diseases (DIRON), Badalona

C. Global:

Abbott Laboratories; AutoGenomics; Biocartis; Bio-Rad Laboratories; Cepheid; EKF Diagnostics; Elitech Group; IntegraGen; Interpace Diagnostics; Myriad Genetics; Perkin Elmer; Qiagen; Quest Diagnostics; Roche Diagnostics; WaferGen Biosystems

6. Universities Associated with Human Genetics

A. City Statistics:

University of Valencia , Universidad catolica de Valencia, Valencian international university, CEU Cardenal Herrera University, La Universidad Catlica de Valencia

B. Country Statistics - Spain:

University of Zaragosa, University of Barcelona, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Universidad Complutense de Madrid , Universidad Autonoma de Madrid

C. Worldwide Statistics:

European university Switzerland, Vilnius university, Uppsala University, Universita degli study di Torino, Maastricht University, Graz University of Technology, Harvard University, Leiden University Medical Center, Center for Human and Clinical Genetics, University of Oxford, Stanford University, University of Cambridge.

7. Market Value on Human Genetics Research:

The global market for Genetic Testing is forecast to reach US$2.2 billion by 2017. Increasing knowledge about the potential benefits in genetic testing is one of the prime reasons for the growth of the genetic testing market. Advancements in the genetic testing space, aging population and a subsequent rise in the number of chronic diseases, and increasing incidence of cancer cases are the other factors propelling growth in the genetic testing market.

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Marion County, South Carolina – Wikipedia, the free …

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Marion County is a county located in the U.S. state of South Carolina. As of the 2010 census, its population was 33,062.[1] Its county seat is Marion.[2] The county was created in 1785 and was originally known as Liberty County. However, four years later it was renamed Marion County, in honor Brigadier General Francis Marion,[3] the famous "Swamp Fox" and a hero of the American Revolutionary War.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 494 square miles (1,280km2), of which 489 square miles (1,270km2) is land and 4.9 square miles (13km2) (1.0%) is water.[4]

As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 33,062 people residing in the county. 55.9% were Black or African American, 40.6% White, 0.5% Asian, 0.4% Native American, 1.3% of some other race and 1.2% of two or more races. 2.4% were Hispanic or Latino (of any race).

As of the census[10] of 2000, there were 35,466 people, 13,301 households, and 9,510 families residing in the county. The population density was 72 people per square mile (28/km). There were 15,143 housing units at an average density of 31 per squaremile (12/km). The racial makeup of the county was 41.69% White, 56.35% Black or African American, 0.25% Native American, 0.28% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.90% from other races, and 0.52% from two or more races. 1.79% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 13,301 households out of which 32.20% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.30% were married couples living together, 23.60% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.50% were non-families. 25.40% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.70% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.64 and the average family size was 3.16.

In the county, the population was spread out with 27.60% under the age of 18, 9.70% from 18 to 24, 26.80% from 25 to 44, 23.80% from 45 to 64, and 12.10% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 85.90 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80.40 males.

The median income for a household in the county was $26,526, and the median income for a family was $32,932. Males had a median income of $26,133 versus $18,392 for females. The per capita income for the county was $13,878. About 18.90% of families and 23.20% of the population were below the poverty line, including 33.30% of those under age 18 and 23.50% of those age 65 or over.

According to the 2010 U.S. Religious Census, Marion County had the highest concentration of followers of the Bah' Faith of any county in the United States, at 5.5%.[11]

Coordinates: 3405N 7922W / 34.08N 79.36W / 34.08; -79.36

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Libertarianism – Uncyclopedia – Wikia

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A man who does not think for himself does not think at all.

Libertarians

Libertarians, more commonly known as Lolbertarians, are ashamed of the fact that the vast majority of the world's politicians today are fat, ugly fugly vampires nurturing themselves by sucking the free spirit out of the back bones of ordinary citizens through methods of merging government power with corporate power, growing the police state at an alarming rate, and bailing out multibillionaire bankers and Wall Street investors who would otherwise fail in a free market society.

Libertarians therefore do not want to continue pretending that our politicians are democratically elected leaders. As such, many American libertarians are currently trying to flee the growing fascistic elements of their corporate-controlled government and reckless military-industrial-complex-turned-police-state by making a mass exodus to locations as far away from the political power centers as possible (sometimes even leaving America for obscure and remote parts of the world such as rural Iceland) where only the raccoons will hear their loud cries for liberty, because by now they realize that hiding from Big Brother is the only real option left.

The essence of libertarianism is that governments should stop controlling people's lives and should instead let individuals take care of themselves as if they were actually grown-up adults and not babies sucking off the teat of the nanny state, constantly whining about their inability to cope in the modern world. More-or-less intelligent people with free will should be capable of making their own decisions about what products to buy and what sorts of lifestyles are worth endorsing through the free support (or withdrawal) of their dollars. This is in direct opposition to the current practice of the IRS taking Americans' dollars through force to pay for bailouts of wealthy people, or to pay for endless overseas wars which Americans neither support nor know anything about since they are too busy playing Farmville or watching football on 72" LCD screens anyway.

Libertarians believe that if you are dumb enough to shop at Wal-mart and fat enough to eat at McDonald's, then that is obviously your problem and not theirs. Those kinds of people can go die of a heart attack in their stained lazy-boy chairs with barbecue grease dribbling down their triple chin as their illiterate mongoloid children run around barefoot without the benefit of tax-payer funded health care or public schools, because obviously these sorts of people should not be encouraged to have any more children. Some people call this view elitist, but Libertarians just call it the bitter truth of reality.

Libertarians despise the government because the trolls that run it abuse their power while for some strange reason believe that the people running corporations are all descendents of Ghandi. Well, actually no, they couldn't give a shit about Ghandi either, as he was obviously just another fame whore bent on "saving the world" and thus winning all the awards and accolades that go along with being The Great Philosopher of World Peace, and thus was no morally different than a CEO who happens to derive his/her personal reward in the form of money that is freely offered by consumers who obviously find merit in the product or service being offered. Be it world peace or Pepsi, consumers shape the world they want through the goods or services they demand. At some point it appears that people started to desire Pepsi more than World Peace, though this is obviously not the fault of Pepsi.

Classical Liberalism and Libertarianism are often confused by Brits who want to take cheap shots at the foundations of American political philosophy, and who are in denial about history and the happy fact that Americans won their little Revolutionary War and are, duh, winning! Or at least were winning up until the last few decades before the state grew too big and the masses became dumbed-down because state education does not encourage people to think for themselves and be strong willed, free thinking individuals who remember where their country came from in the first place. As such, Brits often partake in a bit of sadistic glee in watching our national downfall unfold.

Classical Liberalism started as people attempting to free themselves from authority, which at that time meant the British Monarchy. As soon as a new old authority came along in the form of corporations the Federal Reserve (see Rothschilds), Classical Liberals realized that Americans were now going to be wage slaves no matter what economic policies the federal government enacted. People against Authority later changed their name to Libertarians once the idea of big government authoritarianism somehow became synonymous with being "progressive". Why this happened, the classical liberals will probably never know. Later, capitalists Republicans realized that Libertarianism protects the rights of individuals to property ownership and the free market system, though they paid little attention to the civil liberties aspect of libertarianism which is actually far more fundamental to the philosophy than economics. Anti-Authoritarians have since tried to use the word Anarchist to escape the capitalists Republicans finally, but the capitalists Republicans still trying to be one step ahead tried to use Anarcho-Capitialism, though the Libertarians called them out on that move too, and dubbed the term "neo-cons". In 2024 Capitalists will call themselves Socialists. hopefully be extinct once and for all. Along with communists.

A libertarian in mating season

The typical "modern libertarian" is an anti-government, beer-drinking, crack-smoking, gun-toting, bomb-making, orgy-participating, porn-loving, South Park-watching, straight, male, American "don't fuck with me" motherfucker who lives with his mom and hates the state. Cheap sex, deadly flavors of the evil weed known as pot, and the latest and greatest style of handguns being available in every convenience store wouldn't concern a libertarian in the least. Libertarians are also known for opposing those evil commies, prudish Christians, and Arab types who seek to tyrannize the world with economic and personal repression based on dumb religious values and compassion paid for with other people's money. This includes, in the U.S.: the Democrats, Republicans, Ron Paul, Rand Paul and the Quakers, and in Canada: the Liberals, NDP, Greens, and Mounted Rangers

Libertarianism is believed to have started in early 1884 when founding fathers John Locke and Thomas Jefferson decided to spice up their liberal values in order to impress Ayn Rand with whom they both were in love. When Miss Rand chose to propose to L Ron Hubbard instead, the two gentlemen founded the libertarian principle Anything Goes, lost their marbles and tried to assassinate Mr. Hubbard, an attempt that failed when John Locke sneezed, being allergic to gun powder.

Libertarians oppose the Iraq War, the War on Drugs, the War on Poverty, the War on War, and most other wars. Because, to quote Lysander Spooner, "War is the health of the state," and Libertarians are about having the state be atrophied and diseased whenever possible. Therefore, ironically, they support the War on the State - which, they assure us, will be launched "any day now."

Likewise, Libertarians oppose the war on kiddie porn. For one thing, kiddie porn studios are capitalistic, consistently turning handsome profits, which is what America is supposed to be about, Constitutionally at least; and they consistently employ nubile Americans over swarthy, chubby foreigners, so it is an America-first stance. Further, the war on kiddie porn is the stuff of victimless crimes, which Libertarians oppose at every turn. The kid already having been exploited, one more copy of a video is not going to do anyone any additional harm.

Indeed, the Libertarian Party website for a long time had a section devoted to choice kiddie porn. This was removed abruptly when the party's interest in "unlimited consumer choice" gave way to the obvious benefit of posturing about "filthy paedo scum who should be strung up with the commies," Republicans leading the way for Libertarians, as happens more than a little.

Indeed, Libertarians, who often wear shoes made by 5-year-old Siberian enslaved orphans, have scant grounds to complain about films being made around 14-year-old Danes whom their own government doesn't see fit to protect. Not that we would want it to.

1992 Libertarian Candidate for President

Contrary to popular belief, Libertarians don't support anything and are avid complainers. Mostly consisting of PO'ed Republicans, the party is often criticized by socialists/democrats/commies for support for the well-known evil capitalism and not putting in enough community service hours. Libertarians claim that capitalism is vilified wrongly, but no one listens. They scream and shout for full freedom to do as you will so long as it doesn't infringe on the ability for others to do as they please (it is important to note, getting ahead of smartass commies, that fucking up the economy and the environment and starving your workers does not count as infringement of anything!). This has prompted some badass positions such as the slogan "Your rights end where mine begin" and bringing back the "Don't tread on me" flag. In short, if you don't like capitalism and freedom, then move to China and be happy in squalor. In case you don't know, China is famous for strictly regulating and controlling private businesses, especially the production of toys and milk, and for maintaining ridiculously high wages for the workforce, especially for those spoiled 8-year-olds.

Other less popular views:

To honor the sacred Libertarian cause, industrial-metal pioneer Oscar Wilde and his partner in crime, the famous novelist Trent Reznor, wrote these immortal lyrics of protest, which have been set to a famously stirring melody.

When the Libertarians come to town Everything will turn upside down No one will wear a frown When the Libertarians come to town

The government will shrink to naught Your coffee will always be hot And it will be the cheapest you've ever bought When the Libertarians come to town

You won't have to pay income taxes No need to worry about downsizers' axes The best companies will send you faxes When the Libertarians come to town

The invisible Hand of Nature will keep Every business exec and veep On the straight and narrow, and we all will reap Peace and plenty when the Libertarians come to town

The free market will improve every school Child geniuses will become the rule Our learning will make every nation drool When the Libertarians come to town

When the Libertarians to Washington come The streets will clear of vandal and bum Pimps and pushers will get to run Safe and legal businesses for everyone When the Libertarians come to town

Send in the Libertarians... Send in the Libertarians... Won't someone, please, send in the Libertarians... Sob.

A libertarian protesting to support big business.

A Libertarian can be one of two people. The type of Republican you never see, named Fat-Cats, or the type of Democrats you don't want to see, named Politically Active Hippies. All forty-nine party members are difficult to find. There are very specific instructions in order to catch one.

"Gods of war I call You. My sword is by my side. I seek a life of honor, free from all false pride. I will crack the whip with a bold mighty hail. Cover me with death if I should ever fail.

Glory, Majesty, Unity! Hail! Hail! Hail!"

It is a well-known fact that since most Libertarians are engineers and IT guys, they rule the internet. However, in real life, their unkempt appearance and breath that smells of stale coffee and halitosis means that they usually are not taken seriously.

However, it is mainly their anarchistic anti-regulatory fault that you get so much spam.

There is a train of thought that tends to regard Libertarians as a bunch of self-centred. tax-avoiding Scrooges , but this is far from the case. In 2008, for example, the Libertarian funded "Give A Shit For The Starving Africans" foundation managed to raise 333,000,000 cubic tonnes of pot brownies which was duly shipped to the poorer areas. Reactions to this display of generosity were very positive, especially among Libertarians.

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Libertarianism - Uncyclopedia - Wikia

Defining Futurism – Art History Unstuffed

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FUTURISM AS THE AVANT-GARDE

Futurism was the first movement to aim directly and deliberately at a mass audience, principally an urban audience. In its concern with equating art with life, Futurism aimed at no less than transforming the political mentality of society. This is quite different from the Orphist intention of depicting the flux of consciousness. Similar to the Orphists and to other avant-garde movements, Futurism was a movement aware of the effects of modern life and the key to understanding Futurism is the idea of a complete renewal of human sensibility brought about by modern science. Addressing a public audience, in contrast to the hermetic privacy of Picasso and Braque, the Futurists sought to involve the public in an instant reaction to social provocation, rather than in a slow and gentile contemplation of art forms.

Futurist Evenings became legendary. The first Futurist evening took place in Trieste in modern day Austrian, under the watchful eyes of the local police, disparagingly called pissoirs, or public urinals. As would be any politically provocative event in the Austro-Hungarian Empire at that time, the Evening of 12 January, 1910 earned the Italian invaders a bad reputation. The Futurists did not forget their experiences in Trieste and in a later Evening in Milan in 1914, they burned the flag of Austria, a nation that had appropriated Italian territories. In his manifesto, War, the Only Hygiene, Fillippo ThommasoMarinetti, the leader of the Futurists, wrote of the pleasure of getting booed. To a certain extent, the Futurists sounded proto-Brechtian in their desire to disrupt the complacency of the audience, but, on the other hand, Marinetti in advising his colleagues to put glue on the theater seats, sounds like an immature teenager. Certainly the irrational exuberance of the Futurists borrowed something from the European cult for youth.

It would be a mistake to assume that because the Futurists were utopian, that they were also progressive in their political ideas. In many ways they were very regressive and had pro-military, anti-female notions that would eventually lead many of them into Fascism. Marinetti supported a colonialist war in Libya, Let the Tedious memory of Roman greatness be cancelled by an Italian greatness one hundred times more powerful, he wrote. Ignorant of the destructive power of the machines they worshiped, the artists yearned for a war they hoped would rid them of the yoke of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Futurists preached violence and believed in the virtue of destruction for the purpose of sweeping away the old and the worn out and the useless, with the hope of bringing industrialization about, dragging Italy into the modern world. They wrote polemics against women and museums, everything that was tried tradition and wrote hymns to the God of Speed and worshiped the new idol, the fast motorcar. For the most part, the Futurists were all male and quite masculine, but there was one Futurist woman involved in the movement, but rarely mentioned by historians, Valentine de Saint-Pointe, a dancer, who was a brave future feminist before her time.

The artists saw no difference between their art and the performances that served to publicize their exhibitions. The first major exhibition of Futurist painting took place in Milan, 30 April 1911 and the artists still relied upon Divisionism or Neo-Impressionism. At first, Divisionism united these painters in a common style. For the Futurists, the Divisionists brushstroke was the visual form, which allowed them to paint their obsession: things that moved. With this stroke, they could demonstrate the disintegration of objects due to the action of light and color. This swirling activity, this excitement of the surface of the canvas through nervous brushwork and brilliant and pure color was intended to put the spectator in the center of the canvas. Umberto Boccionis The City Rises of 1910 was a case in point, capturing the danger and the excitement of the agitated crowd with swirls of slashing colors.

As with Futurist theater, spectator involvement was essential in Futurist painting. Although viewers of the paintings did not throw objects at the art as they would at the performers, the goal of the painters was to create the opportunity for participation inside the painting, by moving the viewers eyes into and around and through the composition. The key to the Futurist painting was their idea of universal dynamism, which, as has been noted, was a prevalent preoccupation of this time in Europe. The Futurists endeavored to express the essence of dynamic sensation itself and saw the world as a place of flux, of movement, and of interpenetration. All objects in space and time were drawn together in a universal dynamism, pushed by the speed of the machine. Christine Poggis survey of Marinettis writings during the first decade of the Twentieth Century, in Inventing Futurism: The Art and Politics of Artificial Optimism, traces his conflicting attitudes about the machine. He goes from fear to awe to admiration. It is necessary to remember that people were new at mastering an entire series of newly invented machines, from the automobile to the airplane, most of which could be dangerous and deadly.

The Futurists ideas were more advanced than their painting, and at Gino Severinis urging they visited Paris and saw Cubist works. Gino Severini lived in Montmartre and was well aware of the avant-garde artists, Picasso and Braque and the exhibitions of the Salon Cubists. To Severini, Divisionism was now old-fashioned and he was alarmed that his fellow countrymen were planning to exhibit in Paris as the Futurists with an outdated style. The Futurists realized that the vocabulary of Cubism could be translated and transformed to yet another purpos. The idea of multiple perspectives became codes for dynamic movement. The Futurists sliced through their objects with straight lineslines of forcethat expressed the impact of the machine upon the modern culture. The lines represented many things, the excitement of life in the city, the severe straight lines of the machines so admired by the Futurists, and the fracturing of objects by light and by movement. As Boccioni stated:

Everything moves, everything runs, everything turns rapidly. A figure in never stationary before us but appears and disappears incessantly. Through the persistence of images on the retina, things in movement multiply and are distorted, succeeding each other like vibrations in the space through which they pass. Thus a galloping horse has not got four legs; it has twenty and their motion is triangularOur bodies enter into the sofas on which we sit, and the sofas enter into us, as also the tram that runs between the houses enters into them, and they in turn hurl themselves on to it and fuse with it

Upon learning of Cubism, the Futurists realized there was a more up to date language, and, most importantly, this language was geometric. For Marinetti, geometry was equivalent to the mechanical spirit of the machine. The Paris Debut of the Futurists was at the Galrie Bernheim-Jeune on 5 February, 1912. The paintings featured the prevailing ideas of the Futurists, dynamism, speed, and movement and used lines of force to thrust the viewer into the center of the painting. Giacomo Ballas painting of Abstract SpeedThe Car has Passed By of 1913 forces the eye to move from right to left, following the direction of the spinning wheels. In other words, their work was nothing like the static version of shifting perspectives found in Cubism, but the Futurists were doomed to be labeled as derivitive of Cubism by the French critics. But Cubism and Futurism were very different.

The Difference between Cubism and Futurism

Futurism was the prototype of avant-garde-the artists and poets deliberately provoked unsuspecting art audiences, scandalized the conservative middle class, and lived out any governments worst nightmare: the artist as a political activist. With the cultural memory of audiences laughing at Impressionism, insulting Fauvism fresh in their memories, Cubist art and artists were quiet, intellectual, and cerebral, dedicated to furthering a revolution about art. They worked in isolation (Picasso and Braque) or in small groups and showed their art in conventional arenas, whether in galleries or in exhibitions (the Salon Cubists). The Futurists, on the other hand, were strident, noisy, confrontational, and political. They directed their art and efforts to a mass audience, in contrast to Cubisms out-reach to elite art-educated audiences. Beginning as a literary movement, the Futurists moved into performance and wrote manifestos in exaggerated language, while the Cubist writers maintained an intellectual role, legitimating their movement by associating themselves with French classical art and the latest scientific ideas.

Cubism was defined on two fronts: the private and gallery situation for the art of Picasso and Braque and the public and exhibition setting for the Salon Cubists and was thus defined only in terms of art. Futurism was a movement about the impact of social conditions and cultural conditions upon the human mind. With its constant provocative interactions with the authorities and against the status quo, Futurist artists aligned themselves with violent change and with violent methods. It could be said that Futurism was also a political movement that employed art as a weapon against tradition, and that Cubism was an art movement that employed art as a weapon against art. In contrast to the divisions within Cubism, Futurism showed in exhibitions and galleries and the artists presented a united front, instead of splitting into splinter groups. Essentially a movement concerned with the modern world, Futurism took up the Cubist innovation of collage and used it in preference to painting from about 1914 on. Many of these collages, like the earlier paintings, sought to put the spectator visually and physically in the center of the art.

Futurist art is optical and not intellectual, always related to things that move, that are directional and dynamic, colorful and fragmented. Ironically, Futurism as a style was uniquely appropriate to illustrate the Great War. Only the lines of force could convey the destruction of a world gone mad, blowing itself up, tearing itself apart into fragments. Like many other young men, the Futurist artists marched enthusiastically off to war. Sadly, Gino Serverini painted a hospital train, carrying the wounded to safety. They were the lucky ones. Running to the bright future they were sure that the War would bring, Umberto Boccioni and Antonio Santella were killed.

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Dr. Jeanne S. M. Willette andArt History Unstuffed. Thank you.

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Defining Futurism - Art History Unstuffed