Albert Einstein College of Medicine – Wikipedia, the free …

Coordinates: 405103N 735042W / 40.850852N 73.844949W / 40.850852; -73.844949

The Albert Einstein College of Medicine ("Einstein"), a part of Montefiore Medical Center, is a not-for-profit, private, nonsectarian medical school located in the Morris Park neighborhood of the Bronx in New York City. In addition to M.D. degrees, Einstein offers graduate biomedical degrees through its Sue Golding Graduate Division. Allen M. Spiegel, M.D., has served as The Marilyn and Stanley M. Katz Dean since June 1, 2006.[1]

Einsteins areas of focus are medical education, basic research, and clinical research. The school is well known for its humanistic approach to medicine and the diversity of its student body. The class of 2019 includes 183 students from 23 different states. In addition, 18% were born outside the U.S., and 12% identify themselves as belonging to groups considered underrepresented in medicine.[2]

Einstein is a major biomedical and clinical research facility. Faculty members received $157 million in research grants from the National Institutes of Health in 2014, ranking 25th out of 138 medical schools in the U.S. The N.I.H. funding includes major amounts for research in aging, disorders of intellectual development, diabetes, cancer, liver disease, and AIDS.[3]

Dr. Samuel Belkin president of Yeshiva University, began planning a new medical school as early as 1945. Six years later, Dr. Belkin and New York City Mayor Vincent Impellitteri entered into an agreement to begin its construction. Around the same time, world-renowned physicist and humanitarian Albert Einstein sent a letter to Dr. Belkin. He remarked that such an endeavor would be "unique" in that the school would "welcome students of all creeds and races".[4] Two years later, on his 74th birthday, March 14, 1953, Albert Einstein agreed to have his name attached to the medical school.

The first classes began September 12, 1955, with 56 students. It was the first new medical school to open in New York City since 1897. The Sue Golding Graduate Division was established in 1957 to offer Ph.D. degrees in biomedical disciplines.[5] The Medical Scientist Training Program, a combined M.D.-Ph.D. program, was started 1964.[6] The Clinical Research Training Program, which confers M.S. degrees in clinical research methods, began in July 1998.[7]

Einstein has been the site of major medical achievements and accomplishments, including:[8]

The College of Medicine has been the center of several allegations of discrimination. In 1994, Einstein was sued by Heidi Weissmann, a researcher in nuclear medicine and former associate professor of radiology, for sexual discrimination for not promoting her due to gender bias. The case was settled for $900,000.[9] In 1998, Yeshiva University and Einstein were sued by the American Civil Liberties Union for discrimination of two medical students over their sexual orientation by not allowing their non-student, non-married partners to live with them in student housing.[10]

In February 2015, Yeshiva University announced the transfer of ownership of Einstein to the Montefiore Health System, to eliminate a large deficit from the university's financial statements. The medical school accounted for approximately two-thirds of the university's annual operating deficits, which had reached about $100 million before the announcement.[11] On September 9, 2015, the agreement between Yeshiva and Montefiore was finalized, and financial and operational control of Albert Einstein College of Medicine was transferred to Montefiore.[12] Yeshiva University plans to continue to grant Einstein's degrees until 2018, when Einstein's application for its own degree-granting authority is expected to be approved.[13]

The school offers M.D. and Ph.D. degrees and has a Medical Scientist Training Program that gives combined M.D.-Ph.D. degrees. Students pursuing Ph.D. or M.D.-Ph.D. degrees get full tuition remission and a stipend of $33,000.[23] Einstein also offers M.S. degrees in clinical research methods and in bioethics. The school is well known for promoting community medical awareness, and for humanism in social, ethical, and medical realms through its hospital affiliations, free Einstein Community Health Outreach clinic, and Bronx community health fairs.

It is currently ranked #39 in research by U.S. News & World Report out of 153 medical schools.[24] A study published by researchers at Harvard Medical School and the University of California, San Francisco, which sought to eliminate the subjective metrics present in the U.S. News and World Report rankings, gave a rank of #13 to Einstein relative to other schools in the United States, placing it among the nation's top 10 percent of medical schools. [25][26]

The Albert Einstein College of Medicine is affiliated with five medical centers: Montefiore Medical Center, [27] the University Hospital and academic medical center for Einstein; Jacobi Medical Center, Einsteins founding hospital and first affiliate, and three other hospital systems: Bronx Lebanon Hospital, North Shore-LIJ Health System on Long Island, and Maimonides Medical Center in Brooklyn. Through its affiliation network, Einstein runs the largest postgraduate medical training program in the U.S.

Einstein runs the Rose F. Kennedy Center, which conducts research and treatment for people with developmental disabilities.

Einstein has many departments in various fields of academic medicine and basic science. Ph.D. and M.D.-Ph.D. degrees are offered in:[28]

The Einstein Campus is named for Jack and Pearl Resnick. Its main features are:

The Rose F. Kennedy Center for Research in Mental Retardation and Human Development is on the adjacent campus of Jacobi Medical Center. The Rhinelander Hall Residence Complex, several blocks away on Rhinelander Avenue, houses post-doctoral fellows and medical students.

Einstein is located in Morris Park, a residential neighborhood in the northeast Bronx, several miles from Manhattan. The Wildlife Conservation Park, better known as the Bronx Zoo, and the New York Botanical Garden and its Enid Haupt Conservatory are nearby. The fishing community of City Island, which features marinas and a broad selection of seafood restaurants is also a short distance away.[45]

There are more than 50 student clubs organized around a variety of activities, medical specialties, and a wide range of religious, political, and ethnic affiliations. Offerings include dance and movie clubs, an arts and literary magazine, and the Einstein Community Health Outreach, which launched New York States first student-coordinated free clinic.[46]

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Eugenics in California: A Legacy of the Past? | Center for …

A free event open to the public, Eugenics in California: a Legacy of thePast?, will take place at the Berkeley Law School on the UC Berkeleycampus (105 Boalt Hall) on Tuesday, August 28, 2012 from 12:30 to 2 pm.

For much of the 20th century, California was at the forefront of eugenicideology and practices in the United States, and holds the dubiousdistinction of being the state with the highest number of eugenicsterilizations performed under the authority of law some 20,000procedures between 1909 and the mid-1950s. Coerced sterilizationscontinued in public hospitals into the 1970s, and it has recently come tolight that in very recent years, women prisoners in California have beensterilized without their consent or knowledge. Today, California is aleader in research and services related to human genomics and assistedreproductive technologies. Speakers at this public event will consider thelong history of eugenics in California and explore continuities anddiscontinuities in the uses and misuses of genetic ideas and practices.

Dean Christopher Edley, Berkeley School of Law, will give opening remarksto welcome attendees.

SPEAKERS:

"Eugenic Sterilization in California: Stories and Statistics" Miroslava Chvez-Garca, University of California at Davis, and AlexandraMinna Stern, University of Michigan

We provide an overview of the patterns of the 20,000 eugenic sterilizationsperformed in California state institutions from 1909 to 1979, with closeattention to race, gender, class, and diagnosis. We will also highlightstories of sterilization victims and the ways in which they attempted tochallenge the state's authority to control and contain their reproductiverights. As we will demonstrate, the process had a devastating impact onthe victims.

Ms Bebs? (documentary film) Renee Tajima-Pea, University of California at Santa Cruz; Virginia Espino,University of California at Santa Cruz, and Kate Trumbull, documentaryfilmmaker

The feature-length documentary Ms Bebs? (working title) investigatesthe history of Mexican American women who allege they were coercivelysterilized at Los Angeles County-USC Medical Center during the 1960s and70s. Many spoke no English, and testified that they were prodded intotubal ligations during active labor. The sterilizations triggered the1978 class action lawsuit, Madrigal v. Quilligan, and a protest campaignthat galvanized the Chicana feminist movement.

Eugenics in California Womens Prisons Today Kimberly Jeffrey and Courtney Hooks, Justice Now

Since 2003, Justice Now has been working collaboratively with people inCalifornias womens prisons to document how prisons violate theinternational right to family and function as a tool of reproductiveoppression. Presenters will place a spotlight on personal experience withas well as the systemic pattern of destruction of reproductive capacity ofwomen of color and gender variant people in California womens prisonsthrough several state-sanctioned policies, including forced and coercedsterilizations (e.g. the illegal and routine sterilization of hundreds ofpeople in prison during labor and delivery), and other violations of safemotherhood and reproductive justice.

Should We Worry About a New Eugenics? Marcy Darnovsky, Center for Genetics and Society

Today's fast-developing genetic and reproductive technologies offersignificant benefits, but can also be misused in ways that exacerbateexisting inequalities and create entirely new forms of injustice. California, a hotbed of eugenic advocacy in the last century, is today acenter of biotechnology research and commercial development and theassisted reproduction sector, as well as home to some troublingtechno-enthusiastic ideologies. Our efforts to confront California'seugenic history can help prevent these dynamics from veering toward a neweugenics.

CONTACTS: Susan Schweik, UC Berkeley, sschweik@berkeley.edu, MarcyDarnovsky, Center for Genetics and Society,darnovsky@geneticsandsociety.org

Co-sponsored by the Center for Genetics and Society and U.C. BerkeleysHaas Diversity Research Center, School of Law, Institute for the Study ofSocietal Issues, American Cultures Center, Disability Studies program,Center on Reproductive Rights and Justice, and Center for Race and Gender.

This event is wheelchair accessible. Captioning will be provided. Torequest an accommodation, please email disability@berkeley.edu.

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Aerospace – National Research Council Canada

Canada's aerospace industry is vibrant, innovative and complex, with a rich history and elite reputation on a global stage. NRC Aerospace supports this important industry with facilities, expertise and industry foresight that result in a constant stream of fresh ideas, new technologies, and the development and demonstration of products and processes that target the market challenges faced by the Canadian and global aeronautics and space sectors.

NRC Aerospace conducts research and technology development (R&TD) across the full spectrum of issues related to the design, manufacture, qualification, performance, use and maintenance of air and space vehicles. This work covers all of the major concerns in aerospacecost, weight, safety, and most recently, environmental footprint.

The development and delivery of demonstrated technologies into the aerospace market can best be achieved by combining expertise and resources, and maximizing opportunities for Canadian companies at all levels of the supply chain. In this respect, NRC Aerospace plays a critical role in supporting its collaborators bridge the gap between innovation and commercialization and facilitating the introduction of new technologies into both civilian and military markets.

We are here to assist you in providing technology solutions for the following market segments:

NRC Aerospace focuses on advancing aerospace research and technology developments in the core areas of aerodynamics, flight research, gas turbines, structures and materials, and manufacturing. We offer a number of research and technical services that include fee-for-service testing, calibration and consulting support. We also develop and transfer technologies through consortia, collaborative research agreements and licensing arrangements, tailoring business opportunities to the needs of individual clients and licensees.

In the midst of profound changes to the structure of the global aerospace supply chain and a worldwide race to design and manufacture the next generation of aircraft, NRC Aerospace offers many strategic advantages to Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs), Tier 1 suppliers, small and medium-sized enterprises as well as other government departments, universities and research and technology organizations.

We know that a critical enabler for the commercialization of new technologies includes the much needed technology demonstration platforms and facilities to bridge the "valley of death" the gap in technology readiness that exists between universities and industry. To that end, we offer our clients unique opportunities to participate in large-scale technology demonstration projects, creating important links between players across the Canadian supply chain and ensuring that Canadian companies remain competitive as the industry transitions from current aircraft into radically new aircraft platforms.

NRC Aerospace is home to critical infrastructure that allows us to support a diverse client base with services in various aeronautical fields. We oversee a fleet of fixed and rotary wing research aircraft, materials performance evaluation tools and first-class aerospace manufacturing equipment. We offer technical and advisory services in the following areas:

NRC Aerospace maintains national research and technology development facilities in Ottawa, Montreal and Thompson, Manitoba. These facilities are an important component of Canada's engineering infrastructure and include a state-of-the-art manufacturing centre; six wind tunnels; engine test cells with various customizable capabilities; and, the Global Aerospace Centre for Icing and Environmental Research (glacier), a specialized 9-metre-diameter outdoor test facility that sprays super-cooled water mist into the world's largest aircraft turbines.

NRC Aerospace exclusively owns a number of software programs, processes and technologies that are available for licensing under conditions tailored for each licensee. To discuss licensing opportunities that fit your specific needs, please contact one of our business experts today. Below is a sample list of the current licensing opportunities we offer:

NRC Aerospace has a long history of conducting research, performing technical services and developing technology solutions to support the Canadian aerospace industry. Our national facilities provide cost-effective platforms to test, de-risk, validate and demonstrate new technologies while our industry connections help ensure that Canadian companies remain competitive in a global market.

Our clients come from all over the world to tap into our extensive pool of highly sought after and specialized staff that includes technical experts, researchers, test pilots, atmospheric scientists, aerodynamicists, structural dynamicists, physicists, metallurgists, software designers, instrumentation and signal analysis specialists, icing experts, programmers, and engineers in the fields of aerospace, airworthiness, chemistry, structures, materials, systems, manufacturing automation and human factors.

We operate within a multidisciplinary organization that can link aerospace activities to other key sectors including construction, surface transportation, energy, agriculture, and security and disruptive technologies, to name a few. The broad spectrum of disciplines across NRC can help move technologies forward, and the exchange of ideas between areas of research within the same organization allows for rapid technological advancements in new and exciting sectors.

Our world-class research infrastructure and unique expertise combined with competitive rates, customizable service options and high ethical standards make us the ideal partner to support your vision with innovative services and solutions.

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Aerospace - National Research Council Canada

Women in Aerospace – Expanding Women’s Opportunities – Home

Chairs Corner

Shelli Brunswick, Chair Space Foundation

Registrations have commenced for Aerospace 2016: Innovation in Aerospace! Mark June 8 and September 16 on your calendars for what promises to be an unforgettable conference series. These sessions will provide an in-depth discussion of the latest technological innovations to drive next generation capabilities as pursued by the government and industry. The June 8th session, The 3rd Offset Strategy: The Role of Commercial Practices and Technology in Government Sectors to Drive Next Generation Capability focuses on technological advances in an era of increasingly tight budgets, promising business models and technology areas, and areas that can be leveraged in government sectors to drive next generation capability and competitive advantage. The September 16th session, The Commercialization of Space, will highlight various aspects of Space Commercialization, from investing to receipt of Venture Capital and beyond, from R&D to government applications to technical transfer for commercial applications. Click here for more information on Aerospace 2016.

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Regents Prep: Genetic Engineering

Selective Breeding For thousands of years new varieties of cultivated plants and domestic animals have resulted from selective breeding for particular traits. Some selective breeding techniques include artificial selection, where individuals with desirable traits are mated to produce offspring with those traits. A variation of this process traditionally used in agriculture is inbreeding, where the offspring produced by artificial selection are mated with one another to reinforce those desirable traits. Hybridization is a special case of selective breeding. This involves crossing two individuals with different desirable traits to produce offspring with a combination of both desirable traits. An example of this are Santa Gertrudis cattle, which were developed by breeding English shorthorn cattle, which provided for good beef, but lacked heat resistance, with Brahman cattle from India which were highly resistant to heat and humidity. The Santa Gertrudis breed of cattle has excellent beef, and thrives in hot, humid environments.

An Example of Selective Breeding

Brahman cattle: Good resistance to heat but poor beef.

English shorthorn cattle: Good beef but poor heat resistance.

Santa Gertrudis cattle: Formed by crossing Brahman and English shorthorns; has good heat resistance and beef.

Genetic Engineering In recent years new varieties of farm plants and animals have been engineered bymanipulating their genetic instructions to produce new characteristics. This technology is known as genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology. Different enzymes can be used to cut, copy (clone), and move segments of DNA. An important category of enzyme used to cut a section of a gene and its DNA from an organism is known as a restriction enzyme. When this piece of DNA, which has been cut out of one organism, is placed in another organism, that section of gene will express the characteristics that were expressed by this gene in the organism it was taken from..

An Example of Genetic Engineering

Knowledge of genetics, including genetic engineering, is making possible new fields of health care. Genetic engineering is being used to engineer many new types of more efficient plants and animals, as well as provide chemicals needed for human health care. It may be possible to use aspect of genetic engineering to correct some human health defects. Some examples of chemicals being mass produced by human genes in bacteria include insulin, human growth hormone, and interferon. Substances from genetically engineered organisms have reduced the cost and side effects of replacing missing human body chemicals. While genetic engineering technology has many practical benefits, its use has also raised many legitimate ethical concerns.

Other Genetic Technologies Cloning involves producing a group of genetically identical offspring from the cells of an organism. This technique may greatly increase agricultural productivity. Plants and animals with desirable qualities can be rapidly produced from the cells of a single organism.

Genetic mapping, which is the location of specific genes inside the chromosomes of cells makes it possible to detect, and perhaps in the future correct defective genes that may lead to poor health. The human genome project has involved the mapping of the major genes influencing human traits, thus allowing humans to know the basic framework of their genetic code

Knowledge of genetics is making possible new fields of health care. Genetic mapping in combination with genetic engineering and other genetic technologies may make it possible to correct defective genes that may lead to poor health.

There are many ethical concerns to these advanced genetic technologies, including possible problems associated with the cloning of humans. Another down side to genetic mapping technologies it is possible that some organizations may use this genetic information against individuals.

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Regents Prep: Genetic Engineering

Jeep Liberty – Cars.com

To find cars in your area, Choose a City National Search Alabama, Birmingham Alabama, Montgomery Alabama, Prattville Alaska, Anchorage Arizona, Phoenix Arizona, Tucson Arkansas, Little Rock Arkansas, Mountain Home California, Bakersfield California, Contra Costa Co. California, Fairfield California, Fresno California, Los Angeles California, Marin California, Modesto California, Palm Springs California, Riverside California, Sacramento California, Salinas California, San Diego California, San Francisco California, San Jose California, San Luis Obispo California, Santa Rosa California, Walnut Creek Colorado, Denver Colorado, Ft. Collins Connecticut, Hartford Connecticut, Norwich D.C., Washington Delaware, Wilmington Fla., Ft. Lauderdale/Palm Beach Florida, Brandenton Florida, Ft. Myers Florida, Jacksonville Florida, Melbourne Florida, Miami Florida, Orlando Florida, Pensacola Florida, Sarasota Florida, South Florida Florida, Tallahassee Florida, Tampa Georgia, Atlanta Georgia, Augusta Georgia, Columbus Georgia, Gainesville Georgia, Macon Georgia, Savannah Hawaii, Honolulu Idaho, Boise Illinois, Belleville Illinois, Champaign Illinois, Chicago Illinois, Rockford Indiana, Evansville Indiana, Ft. Wayne Indiana, Indianapolis Indiana, Lafayette Indiana, Marion Indiana, Muncie Indiana, Richmond Indiana, South Bend Indiana, Terre Haute Iowa, Des Moines Iowa, Iowa City Kansas, Wichita Kentucky, Lexington Kentucky, Louisville Kentucky, Paducah Louisiana, Baton Rogue Louisiana, Jackson Louisiana, Lafayette Louisiana, Monroe Louisiana, New Orleans Louisiana, Shreveport MA, Hyannis (Cape Cod) Maryland, Baltimore Maryland, Salisbury Massachusetts, Boston Massachusetts, Worcester Michigan, Battle Creek Michigan, Detroit Michigan, Flint Michigan, Grand Rapids Michigan, Kalamazoo Michigan, Lansing Michigan, Muskegon Michigan, Port Huron Minnesota, Duluth Minnesota, Minneapolis Minnesota, St. Cloud Minnesota, St. Paul Mississippi, Biloxi Mississippi, Hattiesburg Mississippi, Jackson Missouri, Kansas City Missouri, Springfield Missouri, St. Louis Montana, Great Falls N.C., Raleigh/Durham/Chapel Hill Nebraska, Omaha Nevada, Las Vegas Nevada, Reno New Jersey, Southern New Jersey New Jersey, Toms River New Mexico, Alamogordo New Mexico, Albuquerque New Mexico, Carlsbad New Mexico, Deming New Mexico, Farmington New Mexico, Las Cruces New Mexico, Silver City New York, Albany New York, Binghamton New York, Buffalo New York, Elmira New York, Ithaca New York, New York City New York, Poughkeepsie New York, Rochester New York, Syracuse New York, Utica North Carolina, Asheville North Carolina, Charlotte North Carolina, Greensboro North Dakota, Grand Forks Ohio, Akron Ohio, Bucyrus Ohio, Canton Ohio, Chillicothe Ohio, Cincinnati Ohio, Cleveland Ohio, Columbus Ohio, Coshocton Ohio, Dayton Ohio, Fremont Ohio, Lancaster Ohio, Mansfield Ohio, Marieta Ohio, Marion Ohio, Newark Ohio, Toledo Ohio, Zanesville Oklahoma, Oklahoma City Oklahoma, Tulsa Oregon, Portland Oregon, Salem Pennsylvania, Allentown Pennsylvania, Chambersburg Pennsylvania, Harrisburg Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Pennsylvania, Pittsburgh Pennsylvania, Wilkes Barre Rhode Island, Providence South Carolina, Beaufort South Carolina, Charleston South Carolina, Columbia South Carolina, Greenville South Carolina, Hilton Head South Carolina, Myrtle Beach South Carolina, Rock Hill South Dakota, Aberdeen South Dakota, Sioux Falls Tennessee, Chattanooga Tennessee, Clarksville Tennessee, Knoxville Tennessee, Memphis Tennessee, Nashville Texas, Austin Texas, Corpus Christi Texas, Dallas Texas, El Paso Texas, Ft. Worth Texas, Houston Texas, San Antonio Texas, Waco Utah, Salt Lake City Utah, St. George Vermont, Burlington Virginia, Hampton Roads Virginia, Petersburg Virginia, Richmond Virginia, Roanoke Virginia, Staunton Washington, Bellingham Washington, Olympia Washington, Seattle Washington, Seattle-Tacoma Washington, Spokane West Virginia, Huntington Wisconsin, Appleton Wisconsin, Fond du Lac Wisconsin, Green Bay Wisconsin, Madison Wisconsin, Manitowoc Wisconsin, Marshfield Wisconsin, Milwaukee Wisconsin, Oshkosh Wisconsin, Sheboygan Wisconsin, Stevens Point Wisconsin, Wausau Wisconsin, Wisconsin Rapids or enter your ZIP code now.

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Margarita Island beaches (Isla Margarita Playas): photos …

The beaches are pretty too. Most have white sand and palm trees and services for beach-goers. Yet you can find small or secluded beaches too. There is a beach for everyone's liking!

We want to bring to you these Margaritan beaches as pictures so you can see them and read about them. We hope this can inspire you to come visit our island!

You can also experience other tropical beaches by finding affordable Caribbean vacation deals online.

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Margarita Island beaches (Isla Margarita Playas): photos ...

Health Care : Current Reviews – e-Science Central

Health Care : Current Reviews is an Open Access journal that deals with diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in humans. Health Care: Current Reviews focuses on areas such as Health, Environmental Health, Mood disorders, Healthcare Management, Health Outcomes, Travel Medicine, Healthcare Policy, Healthcare Information Technology, Adolescent Health and Medicine, Child Health, Social Health, Travel medicine clinic.

The journal includes a wide range of fields in its discipline to create a platform for the authors to make their contribution towards the journal and the editorial office promises a peer review process for the submitted manuscripts for the quality of publishing. Health Care : Current Reviews is an Open Access journal and aims to publish most complete and reliable source of information on the discoveries and current developments in the mode of original articles, review articles, case reports, short communications, etc. in all areas of the field and making them freely available through online without any restrictions or any other subscriptions to researchers worldwide.

The journal is using Editorial Manager System for quality in review process. Editorial Manager System is an online manuscript submission, review and tracking systems. Review processing is performed by the editorial board members of Health Care : Current Reviews or outside experts; at least two independent reviewers approval followed by editor approval is required for acceptance of any citable manuscript. Authors may submit manuscripts and track their progress through the system, hopefully to publication. Reviewers can download manuscripts and submit their opinions to the editor. Editors can manage the whole submission/review/revise/publish process.

Health Care Management is also known as Health Administration or Health Care Administration. Health Care Management is a profession that includes leadership and management of public health systems. Health care systems management defines the leadership and general management of hospitals and health care systems. There are two types of administrators, generalists and specialists. Generalists are responsible for managing entire facilities. Specialists are responsible for particular department such as finance, accounting, budgeting, and human resources.

Related journals of Health care management.

Family Medicine Journals,Fitness Journal,Health Care journals,Health Education Journal,Womens Health Care Journal,Health Care:Current Reviews, Health Care Management Review, Health Care Management Science, British Journal of Health Care Management, Home Health Care Management and Practice Advances in Health Care Management, Health care management

There are two Domains of Health Services Administration i.e internal Services Administration and external Services Administration. In external Services Administration it covers Community Demographics, Licensure, Accreditation, Regulations, Stakeholder Demands, Competitors, Medicare and Medicaid, Managed care organizations/Insurers. In internal Services Administration it ranges Staffing, Budgeting, Quality services, Patient satisfaction, Physician relations, financial performance, Technology acquisition, New service development.

Related journals of Health administration.

Family Medicine Journals,Fitness Journal,Health Care journalsHealth Education Journal,Womens Health Care Journal,Journal of Health Administration Education - AUPHA Main,Hospital Administration Journals ,Health Administration Journals,Mapping the literature of health care management,The Journal of health administration education Impact ,Journal of Health and Human Services Administration , Journal of health administration education.Care Management Journals - Springer Publishing Company,Health Administration Press Submission Guidelines--Journals.

The Australian Health Ethics Committee is concerned with the ethical suggestions of medical research and practice and of health care in general Ethics are social values, morals, and principles that guide people in behaviours that are good, proper, and decent. Ethical values direct us in our everyday lives as they are ingrained in our society. Healthcare ethics involves making well researched and considerate decisions about medical treatments, while taking into consideration a patient's beliefs and wishes regarding all aspects of their health .The law has a lot to say about personal decision-making. For example, people have the legal right to make their own health care decisions. However, poor health can jeopardize peoples ability to exercise their legal rights.. Health care ethics is a thoughtful exploration of how to act well and make morally good choices, based on beliefs and values about life, health, suffering, and death. Ethical and legal decisions are made daily by healthcare providers in the performance of their regular duties.

Related journals of Ethical issues in Health care.

Family Medicine Journals,Fitness Journal,Health Care journals,Health Education Journal,Womens Health Care Journal,Journal of Medical Ethics - BMJ Journals,Indian Journal of Medical Ethics,Ethics Cases Index - American Medical Association Journal ,Current Issue - Public Health Ethics - Oxford Journals,Ethical issues in scientific publication,Public Health Ethics.

Health communication is the study and practice. It is communicating the promotional health information. Such as Public health ,Health education and between doctor and patient. Because effective health communication must be designer for the audience and the situation, research into health communication pursues to refine communication strategies to inform people about ways to enhance health or to avoid specific health risks. Academically, Health communication faces many challenges that is 1.Literacy-communication gap 2. Mass media. Health statement may variously seek to: advocate a position on a health issue or policy .Increase demand for health services. Goal against misconceptions about health.

Related journals of Health care communications.

Family Medicine Journals,Fitness Journal,Health Care journals,Health Education Journal,Womens Health Care Journal,Journal of Communication in Healthcare,Patient Education and Counseling - Journal,Communication & Medicine - Equinox Publishing,Journal of Visual Communication in Medicine,Health Medical Informatics Journals,Journal Rankings on Communication,A New Dimension of Health Care.

Health economicsis a branch of economics. Health Economics is an useful field of study that allows for the systematic and rigorous examination of the problems handled in promoting health for all Health economists evaluated in different types of cost-effective information: costs, charges and expenditures. The rising costs of health care: Prescription drug spending, overuse and misuse of healthcare, Cost shifting, Personal behaviour, Chronicconditions, Defensive medicine etc.Government-Provided

Related journals of Health care economics.Family Medicine Journals,Fitness Journal,Health Care journals,Health Education Journal,Womens Health Care Journal,Journal of Health Economics - Elsevier,Health Economics Information Resources,Journal of Medical Economics, Informa Healthcare,International Journal of Healthcare Technology ,International Journal of Health Care Finance and Economics.

Medicare is a federal tax-subsidy program,that provides health insurance for some forty million persons aged s65. Medicare Part A, which provides hospital and limited nursing homecare. Part B covers physician services.Part C, is called as Medicare-Advantage, allows beneficiaries to join Medicare-managed care plans. These plans are the Part A and Part B revenues. Part D is the new Medicare prescription drug programpassed in 2003 but not totally implemented until 2006.

Related journals of Health Insurances like.

Family Medicine Journals,Fitness Journal,Health Care journals,Health Education Journal,Womens Health Care Journal,International Journal of Health Economics and Management ,Journal of Risk and Insurance,Health Insurance in Indian Context,Consumer Satisfaction with Health Insurance,The South African national health insurance,Community-based health insurance in low-income countries.

Future of healthcare is also know as Health care reform. Health care reform is a general rubric it is used for discussing major health policy. Many peoples are receives health care insurances like either public sector insurance programs or private sector insurance companies Health exchanges first emerged in the private sector in the early 1980s, and they used computer networking to integrate claims management, eligibility verification, and inter-carrier payments. Exchanges is not themselves insurers, so they do not bear risk themselves, but they do determine the insurance organizations that are allowed to participate.

Related journals of Future of health care.

Family Medicine Journals,Fitness Journal,Health Care journals,Health Education Journal,Womens Health Care Journal,The Future of Health Care: Hacking, Hospitals, Technology,Healthcare: The Journal of Delivery Science and Innovation ,

The future of healthcare today - Journal of Interprofessional,Chronic Infectious Disease and the Future of Health Care,The Game-Changing Journal in the Future of Healthcare.

It is a One of the common questions asked now a days.healthcare innovation the story of the blind men touching different sides of an elephant and each describing something dispersed, you will hear a wide variety of responses to this question based on whom you ask. The following way to Answer the common questions of this topic so you can initial innovation in your mind and within our company First, should the effort of innovation. Innovative information technologies,devices,workflow processes, care models or commercial models? Visibly, it can be any or all of the above. In the past, it is just to say the majority of innovation work was in the devices arena since there was a clear economic return to the association if a new device was widely adopted.

Related journals of Health care innovation.

Family Medicine Journals,Fitness Journal,Health Care journals,Health Education Journal,Womens Health Care Journal,Health care innovations : the journal of the American Association of Preferred Provider Organizations,Healthcare: The Journal of Delivery Science and Innovation,Innovation in Health Care Leadership NEJM,The Burgeoning Literature of Health Care Innovation,Innovations in Health Care - Wsj.com - Wall Street Journal.

health care estimated in$3.09 trillion in 2014, and are projected to soar to $3.57 trillion in 2017. The healthcare market in the U.S. in 2014.in this involved the major groups of hospital care ($959.9 billion), physician and clinical facilities ($618.5 billion), dental services ($122.4 billion) and prescription medicines ($290.7 billion), along with nursing home and home health care ($248.5 billion).

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Health care spending in the United States. that is characterized as being the utmost costly per persons.as compared to all other countries, and notwithstanding this spending, the quality of health care overall is low by some measures. Health sponsoring systems are critical for reaching universal health treatment. According to the WORLD WIDE ORGANIZATION (WHO), whole health care spending in the U.S. was 15.2% of its GDP in 2008,It is the highest in the world. Hospitals costs in health care finance :hospital costs in 2011 were $387.3 billion a 63% increase since 1997 (inflation adjusted). Costs per stay increased 47% since 1997, averaging $10,000 in 2011.

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Health care products frequently originate with a technological innovation that goals to address a need current technology in the medical field . To successfully place healthcare products in the market, product growth must advance with market, marketable and regulatory issues in notice.

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Medical practice management software (PMS) is a group of healthcare software that deals with the day-to-day actions.The medical practice. The software frequently lets users to internment patient demographics, schedule appointments, maintain lists of insurance payers, perform billing tasks, and generate reports. Health care software products are: Insta HMS: Web-based,hospital management system which covers financial, operational and clinical aspects of healthcare providers. Soft Clinic: this Software with all the features of EMR & HMS. GeroPro: this software A complete Healthcare Evidence suite with applications to actualize Financial and Clinical needs of Long-term Care Facilities. Suvarna-HIS: this software system that contains LIS, document management, inventory and nursing management. Diabetes, nephrology modules are available

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The last several a decades have seen great progress in the medical science research, and technologies That can be used to prevention and fight the disease of child woods this result children is born with medical disorder to survive the condition and live longer heal thier lives. Advantages of heath care: which are helpful in identifying more subtle abnormalities of functions treatment of child wood cancer. Which used computer generated modelling controlling the asthma which used as anti inflammatory and anti leukotriene medications immunotherapy& psycho pharmaceutical treatment Better medicine sallow for shorter hospital stays and greater ability to reintegrate with normal daily activities while still effectively fighting diseae

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Apria Healthcare;offers a wide range of home medical equipment to help improve the quality of our patients lives. Medical & healthcare equipment leasing, has been one of the main areas of business that Oak Leasing has supported for over 22 years. AGS is a specialist in delivering healthcare equipment to hospitals worldwide.We have extensive experience in handling and transporting medical and healthcare equipment, both domestically and overseas, to hospitals, clinics and other medical related locations. Quantum Medical Solutions is a young, dynamic and a fast emerging Biomedical Equipment. Efficient healthcare for Africa. Everyone should have access to affordable and efficient healthcare that ensures medical treatment. Medical Hardware; We are a best surgical and medical equipment provider that provides a combination of durable new and professionally refurbished equipment to medical professionals around the globe.

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Health insurance is insurance risk of incurring medical expenses between individuals. By estimating the overall risk of health care and health system expenses, among a targeted group, an insurer can develop a routine finance structure, such as a monthly premium or payroll tax, to ensure that money is available to pay for the health care benefits specified in the insurance agreement. The benefit is administered by a central organization such as a government agency, private business, or not-for-profit entity. According to the Health Insurance Association of America, health insurance is defined as "treatment that provides for the payments of benefits as a result of injury. Includes insurance.

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Our employees are our greatest investment. And health insurance is a acute factor in retaining and recruiting employees, as well as maintaining productivity and satisfaction.Offering the "right" health insurance plan is one of the most important choices can make as a small business owner keeping employees happy and healthy benefits you in the long run. But making sense of the complex healthcare system has become gradually difficult for employers, especially small businesses. United Healthcare can help Our plans help you save money on health care costs and keep our employees informed, healthy and happy. And healthier employees mean a healthier bottom line. Our plans also are efficient to manage, so you can focus on what you do best running your business.

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A Healthcare Advertising agency is a deal business dedicated to making, design and handling advertising (and sometimes other forms of promotion) for its Pharm clients. The agency is free from the client and provides an outside point of view to the work of selling the clients products the agency can also handle overall marketing and branding strategies and sales promotions for its clients. material to support the educational material, by use of the following: Brand Developmentand ,Strategic Planning, Integrated Campaigns, Direct Marketing, Advertising (Press, TV, Radio) Multimedia Web Media, Sales Promotion Education Material ,Shows and Exhibitions Sales ,Force Support , Meetings Best advertising are Innovation, Impact, Design, Copywriting, Use of the medium, Memorability.

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Healthcare legislation: Means There are many ways to abstract health law. The HealthLaw & Justice Program views health law is not only the law of health care delivery and financing but all areas of study that focus on the intersection between law and health. Health law is the federal, state, and local law, rules, and regulations and other jurisprudence between suppliers, payers and vendors to the healthcare industry and its patients; and (2) delivery of healthcare services; all with an stress on operations, guiding and transactional legal issues. Some parts of law it contains:Contract law, Medical malpractice, Medical law, Administrative law, Public health law, basic terms law& legislation: legislation and law used to refer generically to statutes, regulation and other legal instruments that may be the forms of law used in a particular country.

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A database is any collection of data organized for storage, accessibility, and retrieval. There are different types of databases, but the type most commonly used in healthcare is the OLTP (online transaction processing) database. Health care database means: For the most part, healthcaredatabases are used as the foundation or running the many transactional systems flooding the industry. The OLTP database applications: EHRs, lab systems, financial systems, patient satisfaction systems, patient identification, ADT tracking, administration, billing and payment processing,research, HR, and education. Name any application in use at a hospital or in a physicians office, and the chances are good that it runs on an OLTP database

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Healthcare is one social and economic.today Americans facing the problems. The increasing cost of medical care and health insurance is impacting the living of many Americans in one way or another Health Care Statistics in the United States; The United States is the only rich, industrialized nation that not have a worldwide healthcare system.Source: Organization of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences in 2010, the %of Americans without health insurance was 16.3%, or 49.9 million uninsured people. Source: US Census Bureau. Medicare operates with 3% overhead, non-profit insurance 16% overhead, and private (for-profit) insurance 26% overhead. Source: Journal of American Medicine 2007. Since the Childrens Health Insurance Program (CHIP) was created in 1997, the %of children ages 0-17 with health insurance has increased from 86% to 93%. Source: National Center for Health Statistics: December 2011.

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Health Care : Current Reviews - e-Science Central

Home – MEF

Find out the weeks top mobile stories from around the world.

This week.. EU hits Google with 2nd anti-trust charge, UK report cites rising digital privacy concerns, Ghana & mobile democracy, plus many more mobile news stories from across the ecosystem.

The European Union charged Google on Wednesday with using its dominant Android mobile operating system to squeeze out rivals, opening a second front against the U.S. technology giant that could result in large fines.

Is it time for a new look at one of the webs oldest and least successful ideas? Tim Green wonders if bitcoin can revive micropayments and save content from awful ads

Have you ever had an http error 402? Probably not. The clever people who build the web created 402 as code that might eventually be used for digital cash or micropayments. But it never went any further and as of today it is officially reserved for future use.

The fifth quarterly edition of MEFs Mobile Money eBulletin is now available for download. Packed with articles, news insights and analysis the free eBulletin examines the issues, trends and business models that are shaping the mobile money sector.

In this edition Carrier Billing is under the spotlight with insight on the market drivers that are helping to facilitate growth in new markets from Sukey Miller, VP of Marketing at MEF member, Bango.

Last week Facebook announced the launch of its bot platform for Messenger, opening up an API to allow developers to create bots so that people chat with organisations to get information, answer questions and transact.

This means that by combining AI and natural language processing, users will simply instruct messenger to transfer money to someone, order a cab or discuss movie showtimes just like they were talking to a friend.

The rest is here:

Home - MEF

Redhead Porn Videos: Hot Red Head Sex Videos | Redtube

Kimmy Granger is a Crazy Step Sister Just Trying to Show Her Step Brother She Cares. SisLovesMe Invites You to Watch Kimmy Get a Mouthful!

Enjoy a virtual date with a smoking hot REDHEAD in some webcam videos for FREE at RedTube's kinky porntube. These rare beauties are hard enough to find out in the real world. Yet, we've managed to gather up quite a few of them, especially the sexually liberated ones. Our talented actresses don't let their looks alone carry them through their lust filled careers; they bring out their horny desires every time the camera clicks on. See that red hair spill out over milky white shoulders, draping across big breasts and perky nipples. Enjoy a POV style movie where the hard cock on the screen will seem like your rigid penis. Even as that lovely lass is sucking it, swallowing it deep down her throat, you can feel as if you're right there in the action. Don't miss out on the chance to put yourself in the actor's shoes as he penetrates that tight asshole for her first time. Take a fist full of red hairs and pull with each powerful thrust. Listen to that cute babe moan in ecstasy with that thick pole inside her. RedTube.com understands the need to quench your thirst for fantasy, and wants to help out.

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Liberty Hound – facebook.com

Ladies and gentlemen, kids of all ages - Slow Roll season is almost upon us!

With gratitude for such widespread support, we're planning to grow in so many ways... this year, from the ride itself to our reach in the community - this free event enjoyed by thousands from ages 5-93 presents endless opportunities to make Buffalo better by bicycle.

Amidst all this effort and excitement, we're still awaiting word from the city on new costs to be imposed this year; while Mayor Byron W. Brown has pledged to both keep these fees reasonable and even lead a ride, we can promise this much - Slow Roll Buffalo will roll on, and it will remain free for all!

Here's the first half of our 2016 schedule - set your schedules and spread the word!

SEASON OPENER - SUNDAY, May 8th, 1pm - Marcy Casino Buffalo

MONDAYS, meet at 5:30pm - roll at 6:30pm

May 16th - The Oakk Room May 23rd - The Buffalo News May 30th - Buffalo and Erie County Naval and Military Park June 6th - Larkin Square & Hydraulic Hearth June 13th - Heart of Hertel Avenue June 20th - The Groove Lounge June 27th - Resurgence Brewing Company July 4th - Buffalo River Fest Park July 11th - Martin Luther King, Jr. Park July 18th - Artisan Kitchens and Baths July 25th - Lackawanna Fire Station 3

Much more to come...

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New Jersey – Map of Cities in NJ – MapQuest

New Jersey, the Garden State, is defined by regions clear-cut in their geography and culture. More than 8 million people reside in an environment that ranges from cities and dense forests to casino-lined boardwalks and sandy beaches. Bordered by New York, Pennsylvania and Delaware, the state offers visitors a novel mix of outdoor, historic and urban experiences.

The long state brushes against New York in the north and Philadelphia in the south. These major urban areas are hubs where the bulk of New Jerseyites reside. In the densely populated north, for instance, find Newark, gateway to New York and home to a major-league sports arena that is part of MetLife Sports Complex, commonly referred to as the Meadowlands.

Central cities include Trenton, the states capital, and Princeton, which attracts a large number of regional day trippers. Shop along with them in the tidy downtown village or tour local points of historic interest. Top among these are Princeton Battlefield State Park and Rockingham Historic Site, which both played host to the action of the American Revolution. Jackson, near the coast, is home to Six Flags Great Adventure & Wild Safari, an amusement park and 350-acre wildlife preserve.

The Jersey Shore, on the southern coast along the Atlantic Ocean, attracts heavy but happy crowds during the summer. Atlantic City is flush with casinos, hotels and nightlife, housed in a colorful mix of modern and historic buildings that line the four-mile oceanfront boardwalk.

By contrast, the largely undeveloped Pinelands National Reserve spans 1.1 million acres in southern New Jersey. Activities abound in the forests, waterways and parks of the reserve that covers nearly one-quarter of the state.

At the southernmost tip of New Jersey stands Cape May, with land that lies parallel to Washington, D.C. This scenic town, filled with Victorian homes and boutique shopping, is where miles of low-key beachfront and Cape May Point State Park are found. Visitors who climb the nearly 200 steps to the top of the lighthouse are treated to soaring views of the Cape May peninsula.

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New Jersey - Map of Cities in NJ - MapQuest

Candidates

Election Day is November 8, 2016 | Vote Libertarianwe support your rights!

Please see our Local Chapters and Officers pages for contact information if you would like to volunteer to help our candidates.

Your vote for our candidates is appreciated!

Please note that you can enroll with the Board of Elections as a Libertarian. Check the box which says Other and write in Libertarian on the line next to it, and the Board of Elections will list you as such. When we achieve official party status in NY, you will be able to participate in the process of party nomination.

Please give us a heads-up if you are interested in running for any sort of position as a Libertarian.

For statewide candidates, nomination is made at our State Convention. If the district in question is entirely outside of any county represented by a chapter, then it is the State Committee who needs to make the endorsement, otherwise it is any and all chapters contained within the district.

Join your local LPNY chapter to ask for help, or contact us to start one up if there isnt one yet.

NY State Board of Elections NY State Election Law

The FEC has a lovely 110-page document for candidates considering running for congress, or managing a campaign (right-click to download).

Contact (518) 595-4282 to let us know if you want to run or help out.

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Candidates

Lecture 9: Human Genetics | Video Lectures | Introduction …

I want to go back a second to the end of last time because in the closing moments there, we, or at least I, got a little bit lost, and where the plusses and minuses were at a certain table.

And, I want to go back and make sure we've got that straight.

We were talking about a situation where we were trying to use genetics, and the phenotypes that might be observed in mutants to try to understand the biochemical pathway because we're beginning to try to unite the geneticist's point of view who looks only at mutants, and the biochemist's point of view who looks at pathways and proteins.

And, I had hypothesized that there was some biochemists who had thought up a possible pathway for the synthesis of arginine that involved some precursor, alpha, beta, gamma, where alpha is turned into beta; beta is turned into gamma; and gamma is used to turn into arginine. And, hypothetically, there would be some enzymes: enzyme A that converts alpha, enzyme B that converts beta, and enzyme C that converts gamma.

And, we were just thinking about, what would the phenotypes look like of different arginine auxotrophs that had blocks at different stages in the pathway. If I had an arginine auxotroph that had a block here because let's say a mutation in a gene affecting this enzyme, or at a block here at a mutation affecting, say, the gene that encodes enzyme C, how would I be able to tell very simply that they were in different genes? Last time, we found that we could tell they were in different genes by doing a cross between a mutant that had the first mutation, and a mutant that had the second mutation, and looking at the double heterozygote, right? And, if in the double heterozygote you had a wild type or a normal phenotype, then they had to be in different genes, OK? Remember that?

That was called a test of complementation.

That was how we were able to sort out which mutations were in the same gene, and which mutations were in different genes.

Now we can go a step further. When we've established that they're in different genes, we can try to begin to think, how do these genes relate to a biochemical pathway?

I wanted to begin to introduce, because it'll be relevant for today, this notion: so, suppose I had a mutation that affected enzyme A so that this enzymatic step couldn't be carried out.

Such a mutant, when I just try to grow it on minimal medium won't be able to grow. If I give it the substrate alpha, it doesn't do it any good because it hasn't got the enzyme to convert alpha. So, given alpha, it won't grow. But if I give it beta, what will happen? It can grow because I've bypassed the defect. What about if I give it gamma? Arginine?

Now, if instead the mutation were affecting enzymatic step here, then if I give it on minimal or medium but it can grow on gamma. What about this last line?

If I have a mutation and the last enzymatic step, minimal medium can't grow with alpha, can't grow with beta, can't even grow with gamma. But, it can grow with arginine because I've bypassed that step. So, I get a different phenotype, the inability to grow even on gamma, but I can grow on arginine. Now, here, if I put together those mutants and make a double mutant, a double homozygote, let's say, that's defective in both A and B, which will it look like? Will it be able to grow on minimal medium? Will it be able to grow on alpha?

Will it be able to grow on beta?

Will it be able to grow on gamma and arginine? What about if I have a double mutant in B and C, minus, minus, minus, minus, plus? So this looks the same as that. This looks the same as that.

And so, by looking at different mutant combinations, I can see that the phenotype of B here is what occurs in the double mutant. So, this phenotype is epistatic to this phenotype.

Epistatic means stands upon, OK? So, phenotypes, just like phenotypes can be recessive or dominant, you can also speak about them being epistatic. And epistatic means when you have both of two mutations together at the epistatic then one of them is epistatic to the other, perhaps.

It will, in fact, be the one that is present.

So, this is not so easy to do in many cases because if I take different kinds of mutation affecting wing development, and I put them together in the same fly, I may just get a very messed up wing, and it's very hard to tell that the double mutant has a phenotype that looks like either of the two single mutants.

But sometimes, if they fall very nicely in a pathway where this affects the first step, this affects the second step this affects the third step, this affects the fourth step, then the double mutant will look like one of those, OK? And, that way you can somehow order things in a biochemical pathway. Now, notice, this is all indirect, right? This is what geneticists did in the middle of the 20th century to try to figure out how to connect up mutants to biochemistry.

Actually, that's not true. It's what geneticists still do today because you might think that Well, we don't need to do this anymore, but in fact geneticists constantly are looking at mutants and making connections trying to say, what does this double combination look like? What does that double combination look like, and how does that tell us about the developmental pathway, which cell signals which cell? This turns out to be one of the most powerful ways to figure out what mutations do by saying the combination of two mutations looks like the same as one of them, allowing you to order the mutations in a pathway.

And, there's no general way to grind up a cell and order things in a pathway. Genetics is a very powerful tool for doing that.

Now, there are some ways to grind up cells and order things, but you need both of these techniques to believe stuff.

Anyway, I wanted to go over that, because it is an important concept, the concept of epistasis, the concept of relating mutations to steps and pathways, but what I mostly want to do today is go on now to talk about genetics not in organisms like yeast or fruit flies or even peas, but genetics in humans.

So, what's different about genetics in humans than genetics in yeast?

You can't choose who mates with whom. Well, you can.

I mean, in the days of arranged marriages maybe you couldn't, but you can choose who mates with whom, but only for yourself, right? What you can't do is arrange other crosses in the human population as an experimentalist. Now, your own choice of mating, unfortunately or fortunately perhaps produces too few progeny to be statistically significant. As a parent of three, I think about what it would take to raise a statistically significant number of offspring to draw any conclusions, and I don't think I could do that.

So, you're absolutely right. We can't arrange the matings that we want in the human population. So, that's the big difference.

So, can we do genetics anyway? How do we do genetics even though we can't arrange the matings the way we'd like to? Sorry?

Well, family trees. We have to take the matings as we find them in the human population. You can talk to somebody who might have an interesting phenotype, I don't know, attached earlobes, or very early heart disease, or some unusual color of eyes, and begin to collect a family history on that person.

It's a little bit of a dodgy thing because you might just be relying on that person's recollection. So, if you were really industrious about this, you'd go check out each of their family members and test for yourself whether they have the phenotype. People who do serious human genetic studies often go and do that. They have to go confirm, either by getting hospital records or interviewing the other members of the family, etc. So, this is not as easy as plating out lots of yeasts on a Petri plate.

And then you get pedigrees. And the pedigrees look like this.

Here's a pedigree. Tell me what you make of it.

Now, symbols: squares are males, circles are females by convention, a colored in symbol means the phenotype that we're interested in studying at the moment. So, in any given problem, somebody will tell you, well, we're studying some interesting phenotype. You often have an index case or a proband, meaning the person who comes to clinical attention, and then you chase back in the pedigree and try to reconstruct.

So, suppose I saw a pedigree like this.

What conclusions could I draw? Sorry? Recessive, sex link trait; why sex link trait? So, let's see if we can get your model up here. You think that this represents sex-linked inheritance. So, what would the genotype be of this male here? Mutant: I'll use M to denote a mutant carried on the X chromosome, and a Y on the opposite chromosome.

What's the genotype of the female here?

So, it's plus over plus where I'll use plus to denote the gene carried on the normal X chromosome. OK, and then what do you think happened over here? So, mutant over plus, you mate to this male who is plus over plus. Why is that male plus over plus? Oh, right, good point.

It's not plus over plus. It's plus over Y. Why is that male plus over Y as opposed to mutant over Y?

He'd have the mutant phenotype. So, he doesn't have the mutant phenotype so he can infer he's plus over Y. OK, and then what happens here? Mutant over Y; this is plus over Y. How did this person get plus over Y? They just the plus for mom, and the daughters, Y from dad, and a plus from mom. That's cool. Now, what about the daughters there? They're plus over plus, or M over plus? Is one, one, and one the other? Well, in textbooks it's always plus over plus and M over plus, but in real life? We don't know, right? So, this could be plus over plus, or M over plus, we don't know, OK? Now, what about on this side of the pedigree here?

What's the genotype here? Plus over Y, OK.

Why not mutant over Y? Because if they got the mutant, it would have to come from the, OK, so here, plus over plus, and then here, everybody is normal because there's no mutant allele segregated.

Yes? Yeah, couldn't there just be recessive? I mean, it's a nice story about the sex link but couldn't it be recessive? So, walk me through it being recessive. M over plus, plus over plus. Wait, wait, wait, hang on. Could this be M over plus, and that person be affected?

It's got to be M over M, right so mutants over mutants but that's possible. Yeah, OK. So, what would this person be? Plus over plus, let's say, come over here. Now, what would this person be? M plus. It has to be M plus because, OK, and what about this person here? M plus, now what about the offspring? So, one of them is M over M, plus over plus, and two M pluses. Does it always work out like that?

[LAUGHTER] No, it doesn't always work out like that at all.

So, I'm just going to write plus over plus here just to say, tough, right? In real life, it doesn't always come out like that.

What about over here? It would have to be plus over plus.

Why not? It doesn't because it could be M over plus and have no effect at offspring by chance, right? But, you were going to say it's plus over plus because in the textbooks it's always plus over plus in pictures like this, right? And then, it all turns out to be pluses and mutants, and pluses and mutants, and all that, right? Well, which picture's right?

Sorry? You don't know. So, that's not good. There's supposed to be answers to these things. Could either be true? Which is more likely? The one on the left? Why? More statistically probable, how come? Because it is. It may not quite suffice as a fully complete scientific answer though.

Yes? Yep. Well, but I have somebody who is affected here. So, given that I've gotten affected person in the family -- yeah, so it is actually, you're right, statistically somewhat less likely that you would have two independent M's entering the same pedigree particularly if M is relatively rare.

If M is quite common, however, suppose M were something was a 20% frequency in the population, then it actually might be quite reasonable that this could happen. So, what would you really want to do to test this? Sorry? Well, if you found any females here maybe you'd be able to conclude that it was autosomal recessive because females never show a sex-linked trait. Is that true?

No, that's not true. Why not? You're right. So, you just have to be homozygous for it on the X. So, having a single female won't, I mean, she's not going to take that as evidence. Get an affected female and demonstrate that all of her male offspring show the trait. Cross her with, wait, wait.

This is a human pedigree guys [LAUGHTER]. Whew! There are issues involved here, right? You could introduce her to a normal guy, [LAUGHTER] but whether you can cross her to a normal guy is not actually allowed. So, you see, these are exactly the issues in making sense out of pedigrees like this.

So, what you have to do is you have to collect a lot of data, and the kinds of characteristics that you look for in a pedigree, but they are statistical characteristics, and notwithstanding -- So, this could be colorblindness or something, but notwithstanding the pictures in the textbook of colorblindness and all that, you really do have to take a look at a number of properties. What are some properties?

One you've already referred to which is there's a predominance in males if it's X-linked. Why is there a predominance in males? Well, there's a predominance in males because if I have an X over Y and I've got a mutation paired on this X chromosome, males only have to get it on one.

Females have to get it on both, and therefore it's statistically more likely that males will get it. So, for example, the frequency of colorblindness amongst males is what? Yeah, it's 8-10%, something like that. I think it's about 8% or so.

And, amongst females, well, if it's 8% to get one, what's the chance you're going to get two?

It's 8% times 8% is a little less than 1% right?

It's 0.64%, OK, in females. So, we'll just go 8% squared. So in males, 8% in females, less than one percent.

So, there is a predominance in males of these sex-linked traits. Other things: affected males do not transmit the trait to the kids, in particular do not transmit it to their sons, right, because they are always sending the Y chromosomes to their songs. Carrier females transmit to half of their sons, and affected females transmit to all of their sons. And, the trait appears to skip generations, although I don't like this terminology.

It skips generations. These are the kinds of properties that you have. So, hemophilia, a good example of this, if I have a child with hemophilia, male with hemophilia, would you be surprised if his uncle had hemophilia? Which uncle would it be, maternal or paternal?

The maternal uncle would have hemophilia most likely.

It's always possible it could be paternal. This is the problem with human genetics is you've got to get enough families so the pattern becomes overwhelmingly clear, OK, because otherwise, as you can see with small numbers, it's tough to be absolutely certain.

So, these are properties of X linked traits.

How about baldness? Is baldness, that's a sex-linked trait? How come? You don't see a lot of bald females.

Does that prove it's sex linked? Sorry? Guys are stressed more.

[LAUGHTER] Is there evidence that it has anything to do with stress?

Actually, it has to do with excess testosterone it turns out, that high levels of testosterone are correlated with male pattern baldness, but does the fact that males become bald indicate that this is a sex linked trait? No. Just because it's predominant in male, we have to check these other properties.

Is it the case that bald fathers tend to have bald sons?

Any evidence on this point? Common-sensical evidence from observation? It's pretty clear. It's very clearly not a sex-linked trait. It's a sex-limited trait, because in order to show this you need to be male because the high levels of testosterone are not found in females even if they have the genotype that might predispose them to become bald if they were male. So, it actually is not a sex-linked trait at all, and it's very clear that male pattern baldness does run in families more vertically. So, you've got to be careful about the difference between sex linked and sex limited, and sex linked you can really pick out from transmission and families.

OK, here's another one. New pedigree.

She married twice here. OK, what do we got?

Yep? She married again. She married twice. She didn't have any offspring the second time. But that happens, and you have to be able to draw it in the pedigree.

She's entitled, all right. OK, so she got married again, no offspring from this marriage. That's her legal symbol. You guys think that's funny. It's real, you know?

OK, that doesn't mean she's married to two people at the same time.

This is not a temporal picture. So, what do we got here? Yep?

Sorry, of this person? Well, I'm drawing them as an empty symbol here, indicating that we do not think they have the trait.

They're not carriers. How do you propose to find that out?

Look at the children. Well, the children are affected. They could be carriers. The data are what they are.

You've got to interpret it. Does this person have to be a carrier? What kind of trait do you think this is?

Dominant? Does this look like autosomal dominant to you?

Yep? Oh, not all the kids have the trait in the first generation, and if this was dominant, they'd all have it? What's a possible genotype for this person?

Mutant over plus. And, these kids could be mutant over plus.

This could be plus over plus, and this could be plus over plus, mutant over plus, plus over plus, mutant over plus, and plus over plus would be one possibility. On average, what fraction of the kids should get the trait? About half the kids, right? So, let's see what characteristics we have here. We see the trait in every generation.

On average, half the kids get the trait.

Half of the offspring of an affected individual are affected.

What else? Males and females? Roughly equal in males and females?

Sorry? One, two, three, four, five to two. So, it's a 5:2 ratio?

Oh, in the offspring it's a 2:1 ratio. So, this is like Mendel.

You see this number and you say, OK, 2:1. Isn't that trying to tell me something? Not with six offspring. That's the problem is with six offspring, 2:1 might be trying to tell you 1:1.

And it is. If I had a dominantly inherited trait where there's a 50/50 chance of each offspring getting the disease and it was autosomal, not sex linked, there would be very good odds of getting two males and one female because it happens: flip coins and it happens. So, you have to take that into account, and here you see what else we have. Roughly equal numbers of males and females, they transmit equally, and unaffecteds never transmit.

This would be the classic autosomal dominant trait.

Right, here this mutant would go mutant over plus, mutant over plus, plus over plus, mutant over plus, plus over plus, plus over plus, and you'd see here that three out of the five here, and one, two, three out of the six there: that's a little more than half but it's small numbers here, right? This is a classic autosomal dominant as in the textbooks. Yes? Turns out not to make too much of a difference. It turns out that there's lots of genome that's on either. And so, it is true that males are more susceptible to certain genetic diseases.

So, it'll be some excess, but it won't matter for this.

Now, in real life it doesn't always work so beautifully.

We'll take an example: colon cancer. There are particular autosomal dominant mutations here that cause a high risk of colon cancer.

People who have mutations in a certain gene, MLH-1, have about a 70% risk of getting colon cancer in their life.

But notice, it's not 100%. You might have incomplete penetrance.

Incompletely penetrance means not everybody who gets the genotype gets the phenotype. Not all people with the M over plus genotype show the phenotype. Once you do that, it messes up our picture colossally, because, tell me, how do we know that this person over here is not actually M over plus.

Maybe they're cryptic. They haven't shown the phenotype.

And maybe, it'll appear in the next generation. That'll screw up everything. It screws up our rule about not transmitting through unaffected, it screws up the rule about not being shown in every generation, and it will even screw up our 50/50 ratio because if half the offspring get M over plus, but only 70% of that half show the phenotype, then only 35% of the offspring will show the phenotype. Unfortunately, this is real life.

The rest is here:

Lecture 9: Human Genetics | Video Lectures | Introduction ...

Human Physiology/Genetics and inheritance – Wikibooks …

Introduction[edit]

Genetics is the science of the way traits are passed from parent to offspring. For all forms of life, continuity of the species depends upon the genetic code being passed from parent to offspring. Evolution by natural selection is dependent on traits being heritable. Genetics is very important in human physiology because all attributes of the human body are affected by a persons genetic code. It can be as simple as eye color, height, or hair color. Or it can be as complex as how well your liver processes toxins, whether you will be prone to heart disease or breast cancer, and whether you will be color blind. Defects in the genetic code can be tragic. For example: Down Syndrome, Turner Syndrome, and Klinefelter's Syndrome are diseases caused by chromosomal abnormalities. Cystic fibrosis is caused by a single change in the genetic sequence.

Genetic inheritance begins at the time of conception. You inherited 23 chromosomes from your mother and 23 from your father. Together they form 22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes and a pair of sex chromosomes (either XX if you are female, or XY if you are male). Homologous chromosomes have the same genes in the same positions, but may have different alleles (varieties) of those genes. There can be many alleles of a gene within a population, but an individual within that population only has two copies, and can be homozygous (both copies the same) or heterozygous (the two copies are different) for any given gene.

Genetics is important to medicine. As more is understood about how genetics affects certain defects and diseases, cures and treatments can be more readily developed for these disorders. The sequence of the human genome (approximately 3 billion base pairs in a human haploid genome with an estimated 20,000-25,000 protein-coding genes) was completed in 2003, but we are far from understanding the functions and regulations of all the genes. In some ways medicine is moving from diagnosis based on symptoms towards diagnosis based on genetics, and we are moving into what many are calling the age of personalized medicine.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the macromolecule that stores the information necessary to build structual and functional cellular components. It also provides the basis for inheritance when DNA is passed from parent to offspring. The union of these concepts about DNA allows us to devise a working definition of a gene. A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for the synthesis of a protein and acts as a unit of inheritance that can be transmitted from generation to generation. The external appearance (phenotype) of an organism is determined to a large extent by the genes it inherits (genotype). Thus, one can begin to see how variation at the DNA level can cause variation at the level of the entire organism. These concepts form the basis of genetics and evolutionary theory.

rotating animation of a DNA molecule.

A gene is made up of short sections of DNA which are contained on a chromosome within the nucleus of a cell. Genes control the development and function of all organs and all working systems in the body. A gene has a certain influence on how the cell works; the same gene in many different cells determines a certain physical or biochemical feature of the whole body (e.g. eye color or reproductive functions). All human cells hold approximately 30,000 different genes. Even though each cell has identical copies of all of the same genes, different cells express or repress different genes. This is what accounts for the differences between, let's say, a liver cell and a brain cell . Genotype is the actual pair of genes that a person has for a trait of interest. For example, a woman could be a carrier for hemophilia by having one normal copy of the gene for a particular clotting protein and one defective copy. A Phenotype is the organisms physical appearance as it relates to a certain trait. In the case of the woman carrier, her phenotype is normal (because the normal copy of the gene is dominant to the defective copy). The phenotype can be for any measurable trait, such as eye color, finger length, height, physiological traits like the ability to pump calcium ions from mucosal cells, behavioral traits like smiles, and biochemical traits like blood types and cholesterol levels. Genotype cannot always be predicted by phenotype (we would not know the woman was a carrier of hemophilia just based on her appearance), but can be determined through pedigree charts or direct genetic testing. Even though genotype is a strong predictor of phenotype, environmental factors can also play a strong role in determining phenotype. Identical twins, for example, are genetic clones resulting from the early splitting of an embryo, but they can be quite different in personality, body mass, and even fingerprints.

Genetics (from the Greek genno = give birth) is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms. The word "genetics" was first suggested to describe the study of inheritance and the science of variation by prominent British scientist William Bateson in a personal letter to Adam Sedgwick, dated April 18, 1905. Bateson first used the term "genetics" publicly at the Third International Conference on Genetics (London, England) in 1906.

Heredity and variations form the basis of genetics. Humans apply knowledge of genetics in prehistory with the domestication and breeding of plants and animals. In modern research, genetics provide important tools for the investigation of the function of a particular gene, e.g., analysis of genetic interactions. Within organisms, genetic information is generally carried in chromosomes, where it is represented in the chemical structure of particular DNA molecules.

Genes encode the information necessary for synthesizing the amino-acid sequences in proteins, which in turn play a large role in determining the final phenotype, or physical appearance of the organism. In diploid organisms, a dominant allele on one chromosome will mask the expression of a recessive allele on the other. While most genes are dominant/recessive, others may be codominant or show different patterns of expression. The phrase "to code for" is often used to mean a gene contains the instructions about a particular protein, (as in the gene codes for the protein). The "one gene, one protein" concept is now known to be the simplistic. For example, a single gene may produce multiple products, depending on how its transcription is regulated. Genes code for the nucleotide sequence in mRNA and rRNA, required for protein synthesis.

Gregor Mendel researched principals of heredity in plants. He soon realized that these principals also apply to people and animals and are the same for all living animals.

Gregor Mendel experimented with common pea plants. Over generations of the pea plants, he noticed that certain traits can show up in offspring with out blending any of the parent's characteristics. This is a very important observation because at this point the theory was that inherited traits blend from one generation to another.

Pea plant reproduction is easily manipulated. They have both male and female parts and can easily be grown in large numbers. For this reason, pea plants can either self-pollinate or cross-pollinate with other pea plants.

In cross pollinating two true-breeding plants, for example one that came from a long line of yellow peas and the other that came from a long line of green peas, the first generation of offspring always came out with all yellow peas. The following generations had a ratio of 3:1 yellow to green. In this and in all of the other pea plant traits Mendel observed, one form was dominant over another so it masked the presence of the other allele. Even if the phenotype (presence) is covered up, the genotype (allele) can be passed on to other generations.

Time line of notable discoveries

1859 Charles Darwin publishes "The Origin of Species"

1865 Gregor Mendel's paper, Experiments on Plant Hybridization

1903 Chromosomes are discovered to be hereditary units

1906 The term "genetics" is first introduced publicly by the British biologist William Bateson at the Third International Conference on Genetics in London, England

1910 Thomas Hunt Morgan shows that genes reside on chromosomes, and discovered linked genes on chromosomes that do NOT follow Mendel's law of independent allele segregation

1913 Alfred Sturtevant makes the first genetic map of a chromosome

1913 Gene maps show chromosomes contain linear arranged genes

1918 Ronald Fisher publishes On the correlation between relatives on the supposition of Mendelian inheritance - the modern synthesis starts.

1927 Physical changes in genes are called mutations

1928 Fredrick Griffith discovers a hereditary molecule that is transmissible between bacteria

1931 Crossing over is the cause of recombination

1941 Edward Lawrie Tatum and George Wells Beadle show that genes code for proteins

1944 Oswald Theodore Avery, Colin McLeod and Maclyn McCarty isolate DNA as the genetic material (at that time called transforming principle)

1950 Erwin Chargaff shows that the four nucleotides are not present in nucleic acid in stable proportions, but that some general rules appear to hold. (e.g., the nucleotide bases Adenine-Thymine and Cytosine-guanine always remain in equal proportions)

1950 Barbra McClintock discovers transposons in maize

1952 The Hershey-Chase experiment proves the genetic information of phages (and all other organisms) to be DNA

1953 DNA structure is resolved to be a double helix by James D. Watson and Francis Crick, with help from Rosalind Franklin

1956 Jo Hin Tjio and Albert Levan established the correct chromosome number in humans to be 46

1958 The Meselson-Stahl experiment demonstrates that DNA is semi-conservatively replicated

1961 The genetic code is arranged in triplets

1964 Howard Temin showed using RNA viruses that Watson's central dogma is not always true

1970 Restriction enzymes were discovered in studies of a bacterium Haemophilus influenzae, enabling scientists to cut and paste DNA

1977 DNA is sequenced for the first time by Fred Sangr, Walter Gilbert, and Allan Maxam working independently. Sanger's lab complete the entire genome of sequence of Bacteriophage

1983 Kary Banks Mullis discovers the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) enabling the easy amplification of DNA

1985 Alec Jeffreys discovers genetic finger printing

1989 The first human gene is sequenced by Francis Collin and Lap-Chee Tsui. It encodes the CFTR protein. Defect in this gene causes Cystic Fibrosis

1995 The genome of Haemophilus influenza is the first genome of a free living organism to be sequenced.

1996 Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the first eukaryote genome sequence to be released.

1998 The first genome sequence for a multicellular eukaryote, C. elegans is released.

2001 First draft sequences of the human genome are released simultaneously by the Human Genome Project and Celera Genomic

2003 (14 April) Successful completion of Human Genome Project with 99% of the genome sequenced to a 99.99% accuracy

2006 Marcus Pembrey and Olov Bygren publish Sex-specifics, male line trans-generational responses in humans, a proof of epigenetics

Transcription is the process of making RNA. In response to an enzyme RNA polymerase breaks the hydrogen bonds of the gene. A gene is a segment of DNA which contains the information for making a protein. As it breaks the hydrogen bonds it begins to move down the gene. Next the RNA polymerase will line up the nucleotides so they are complementary. Some types of RNA will leave the nucleus and perform a specific function.

Translation is the synthesis of the protein on the ribosome as the mRNA moves across the ribosome. There are eleven basic steps to translation.

1. The mRNA base sequence determines the order of assembling of the amino acids to form specific proteins.

2. Transcription occurs in the nucleus, and once you have completed transcription the mRNA will leave the nuecleus, and go into the cytoplasm where the mRNA will bind to a free floating ribosome, where it will attach to a small ribosomal subunit.

3. Methionine-tRNA binds to the nucleotides AUG. AUG is known as the start codon and is found at the beginning of each mRNA.

4. The complex then binds to a large ribosomal subunit. Methionine-tRNA is bound to the P site of the ribosome.

5. Another tRNA containing a second amino acid (lysine) binds to the second amino acid. Binding to the second condon of mRNA (on the A-site of the ribosome).

6. Peptidyl transferase, forms a peptide3 bond between the two amino acids (methionine and lysine)

7. The first amino tRNA is released and mRNA is translocated one codon carrying the second tRNA (still carrying the two amino acids) to the P site.

8. Another tRNA with attached amino acid (glutamine) moves into the A site and binds to that codon.

9. It will now form a peptide bond with lysine and glutamine

10. Now the tRNA in the P site will be let go, and mRNA is translocated one codon, (the tRNA with three amino acids) to the P site.

11. This will continue going until it reaches the stop codon (UAG) on the mRNA. Then this codon will tell it to release the polypeptide chain.

These are some good sites to visit

Select A the video of the Inner Life of a Cell. If you want to hear the descriptions in this process go to B web site and select the Inner Life: view the animation.

Children inherit traits, disorders, and characteristics from their parents. Children tend to resemble their parents especially in physical appearance. However they may also have the same mannerisms, personality, and a lot of the time the same mental abilities or disabilities. Many negatives and positives tend to "run in the family". A lot of the time people will use the excuse "It runs in the family" for things that have alternative reasons, such as a whole family may be overweight, yes it may "run in the family" but it could also be because of all the hamburgers and extra mayo that they all eat. Or the fact that after they eat the hamburgers they all sit on the couch and don't move for the rest of the evening. Children may have the same habits (good or bad) as their parents, like biting their nails or enjoying reading books. These things aren't inherited they are happening because children imitate their parents, they want to be like mom or dad. Good examples are just as important as good genes.

A person's cells hold the exact genes that originated from the sperm and egg of his parents at the time of conception. The genes of a cell are formed into long strands of DNA. Most of the genes that control characteristic are in pairs, one gene from mom and one gene from dad. Everybody has 22 pairs of chromosomes (autosomes) and two more genes called sex-linked chromosomes. Females have two X (XX) chromosomes and males have an X and a Y (XY) chromosome. Inherited traits and disorders can be divided into three categories: unifactorial inheritance, sex-linked inheritance, and multifactor inheritance.

Traits such as blood type, eye color, hair color, and taste are each thought to be controlled by a single pair of genes. The Austrian monk Gregor Mendel was the first to discover this phenomenon, and it is now referred to as the laws of Mendelian inheritance. The genes deciding a single trait may have several forms (alleles). For example, the gene responsible for hair color has two main alleles: red and brown. The four possibilities are thus

Brown/red, which would result in brown hair, Red/red, resulting in red hair, Brown/brown, resulting in brown hair, or Red/brown, resulting in red hair.

The genetic codes for red and brown can be either dominant or recessive. In any case, the dominant gene overrides the recessive.

When two people create a child, they each supply their own set of genes. In simplistic cases, such as the red/brown hair, each parent supplies one "code", contributing to the child's hair color. For example, if dad has brown/red he has a 50% chance of passing brown hair to his child and a 50% of passing red hair. When combined with a mom who has brown/brown (who would supply 100% brown), the child has a 75% chance of having brown hair and a 25% chance of having red hair. Similar rules apply to different traits and characteristics, though they are usually far more complex.

Some traits are found to be determined by genes and environmental effects. Height for example seems to be controlled by multiple genes, some are "tall" genes and some are "short" genes. A child may inherit all the "tall" genes from both parents and will end up taller than both parents. Or the child my inherit all the "short" genes and be the shortest in the family. More often than not the child inherits both "tall" and "short" genes and ends up about the same height as the rest of the family. Good diet and exercise can help a person with "short" genes end up attaining an average height. Babies born with drug addiction or alcohol addiction are a sad example of environmental inheritance. When mom is doing drugs or drinking, everything that she takes the baby takes. These babies often have developmental problems and learning disabilities. A baby born with Fetal alcohol syndrome is usually abnormally short, has small eyes and a small jaw, may have heart defects, a cleft lip and palate, may suck poorly, sleep poorly, and be irritable. About one fifth of the babies born with fetal alcohol syndrome die within the first weeks of life, those that live are often mentally and physically handicapped.

Sex-linked inheritance is quite obvious, it determines your gender. Male gender is caused by the Y chromosome which is only found in males and is inherited from their fathers. The genes on the Y chromosomes direct the development of the male sex organs. The x chromosome is not as closely related to the female sex because it is contained in both males and females. Males have a single X and females have double XX. The X chromosome is to regulate regular development and it seems that the Y is added just for the male genitalia. When there is a default with the X chromosomes in males it is almost always persistent because there is not the extra X chromosome that females have to counteract the problem. Certain traits like colorblindness and hemophilia are on alleles carried on the X chromosome. For example if a woman is colorblind all of her sons will be colorblind. Whereas all of her daughters will be carriers for colorblindness.

Our knowledge of the mechanisms of genetic inheritance has grown a lot since Mendel's time. It is now understood, that if you inherit one allele, it can sometimes increase the chance of inheriting another and can affect when or how a trait is expressed in an individuals phenotype. There are levels of dominance and recessiveness with some traits. Mendel's simple rules of inheritance does not always apply in these exceptions.

Polygenic traits are traits determined by the combined effect of more than one pair of genes. Human stature is an example of this trait. The size of all body parts from head to foot combined determines height. The size of each individual body part are determined by numerous genes. Human skin, eyes, and hair are also polygenic genes because they are determined by more than one allele at a different location.

When there is incomplete dominance, blending can occur resulting in heterozygous individuals. An example of intermediate expression is the pitch of a human male voice. Homozygous men have the lowest and highest voice for this trait (AA and aa). The child killer Tay- Sachs is also characterized by incomplete dominance.

For some traits, two alleles can be co-dominant. Were both alleles are expressed in heterozygous individuals. An example of that would be a person with AB blood. These people have the characteristics of both A and B blood types when tested.

There are some traits that are controlled by far more alleles. For example, the human HLA system, which is responsible for accepting or rejecting foreign tissue in our bodies, can have as many as 30,000,000 different genotypes! The HLA system is what causes the rejection of organ transplants. The multiple allele series is very common, as geneticists learn more about genetics, they realize that it is more common than the simple two allele ones.

Modifying and regulator genes are the two classes of genes that may have an effect on how the other genes function. Modifying Genes alter how other genes are expressed in the phenotype. For example, a dominant cataracts gene may impair vision at various degrees, depending on the presence of a specific allele for a companion modifying gene. However, cataracts can also come from excessive exposure to ultraviolet rays and diabetes. Regulator Genes also known as homoerotic genes, can either initiate or block the expression of other genes. They also control a variety of chemicals in plants and animals. For example, Regulator genes control the time of production of certain proteins that will be new structural parts of our bodies. Regulator genes also work as a master switch starting the development of our body parts right after conception and are also responsible for the changes in our bodies as we get older. They control the aging processes and maturation.

Some genes are incomplete penetrate. Which means, unless some environmental factors are present, the effect does not occur. For example, you can inherit the gene for diabetes, but never get the disease, unless you were greatly stressed, extremely overweight, or didn't get enough sleep at night.

Some of the most common inherited diseases are hemochromatosis, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia and hemophilia. They are all passed along from the parents and even if the parents don't show signs of the disease they may be carriers which mean that all of the children they have may be born with the disease. There is genetic testing that may be done prenatally to determine if the baby is conflicted with one of these diseases.

Even though most people have never heard of hemochromatosis it is the most common inherited disease. About 1 in 300 are born with hemochromatis and 1 in 9 are carriers. The main characteristic is the intake of too much iron into the inflicted body. Iron is crucial to the workings of hemoglobin but too much iron is just as bad as too little iron. With hemochromatosis deposits of iron form on almost every major organ especially the liver, heart and pancreas, which causes complete organ failure. Hemochromatosis patients usually absorb two or three times the iron that is needed for normal people. Hemochromatosis was first discovered in 1865 and most patients have Celtic ancestry dating back 60 or 70 generations.

The most common treatment for hemochromatosis is to induce anemia and maintain it until the iron storage is reduced. This is done by therapeutic phlebotomy. Phlebotomy is the removal of a unit of blood (about 500 mls.) This must be done one to two times a week and can take weeks, months, or years to complete. After this treatment some patients will never have to do it again and others will have to do it many times over the course of their life. Patients who undergo their recommended treatments usually go on to live a long and healthy life. Patients who decide against treatment increase their chances of problems such as organ failure -- or even death. Along with phlebotomy treatment, patients should stick to a low iron diet and should not cook with iron cookware.

Cystic fibrosis is a disease that causes thick, sticky mucus to build up in the lungs and digestive tract. It is the most common lung disease in children and young adults and may cause early death. The mucus builds up in the breathing passages of the lungs and in the pancreas. The build up of the mucus results in terrible lung infections and digestion problems. Cystic fibrosis may also cause problem with the sweat gland and a man's reproductive system. There are more than 1,000 mutations of the CF gene, symptoms vary from person to person. The most common symptoms are: No bowel movements for the first 24 to 48 hours of life, stools that are pale or clay colored, foul smelling or that float, infants that have salty-tasting skin, recurrent respiratory infections like pneumonia, coughing or wheezing, weight loss or low weight gain in childhood, diarrhea, delayed growth, and excessive fatigue. Most patients are diagnosed by their first birthday but less severe cases sometimes aren't caught until after 18 years of age. 40% of patients are over 18 years old and the average life span of CF patients is about 35 years old, which is a huge increase over the last 30 years. Patients usually die of lung complications.

In 2005 the U.S food and drug administration approved the first DNA based blood test to help detect CF. Other tests to help detect CF include: Sweat chloride test, which is the standard test for CF. High salt levels in the patients sweat is an indication of CF, Fecal fat test, upper GI and small bowel series, and measurements of pancreatic function. After a diagnosis has been made there are a number of treatments available, these include: Antibiotics for respiratory infections, pancreatic enzyme replacement, vitamin supplements (mostly A, D, E, and K), inhalers to open the airways, enzyme replacement therapy which makes it easier to cough up the mucus, pain relievers, and in very severe cases, lung transplants.

Sickle cell anemia is an inherited disease of the red blood cells which causes abnormally shaped red cells. A typical red blood cell has about 270 million hemoglobin molecules, which bind with oxygen. In a person with sickle cell disease, one amino acid is changed in the hemoglobin molecule, and the end result is misshapen red blood cells. In a patient with sickle cell disease the red blood cells change from the normal round shape to the shape of a sickle or "C" shaped. The abnormal shape causes the cells to get stuck in some blood vessels which causes blockage in the vessel. This causes pain and can destroy organs because of the lack of oxygen. Sickle cells live only 10 to 20 days and a normal cell lives about 120 days.

Red blood cells with sickle-cell mutations.

This rapid death of blood cells leads to chronic anemia. Complications can include severe pain, terrible infection, swelling of the feet and hands, stroke, damage to the eyes, and damaged body organs. These effects can vary from person to person depending on the type of sickle cell disease they have. Some patients are mostly healthy and others are in the hospital more than they are out. Thanks to diagnosis and treatment advancements, most children born with sickle cell grow up to have a normal and relatively healthy life. The form of sickle cell is determined by which genes they inherit from the parents. When a child inherits a sickle cell gene (hemoglobin gene) from each parent it is called hemoglobin SS disease ( which is the formal name for sickle cell). When a child inherits a sickle cell gene from one parent and a different abnormal gene from the other parent, it is a form of disease called hemoglobin SC disease or hemoglobin S-thalassemia. If a child inherits a normal gene from one parent and a sickle cell gene from the other, the child will not have sickle cell but will be a carrier and may pass it to their children. Sickle cell affects mostly African Americans and some Latino Americans. A person who is a carrier (has one copy of the gene) is resistant to malaria. This heterozygote advantage explains why the gene is more common in people in equatorial regions, or who are descendants of such people (such as African Americans).

Sickle cell is diagnosed at birth with a simple blood test. If the first blood test is positive then a second test is done just for confirmation. Because of the high risk of infections that occur with sickle cell, early diagnosis is very important. Other than a bone marrow transplant there is no known cure for sickle cell. Bone marrow transplants have a high risk of rejection and aren't an available option for every patient. The patient would need a bone marrow donor match with a low risk of rejection. Even without a cure, with the use of pain medications and antibiotic treatments, children with sickle cell can live a long and happy life. Blood transfusions are sometimes used to treat episodes of severe pain. For adults who have recurrent pain episodes (at least 3 yearly), a cancer drug, hydroxyurea (marketed as Droxia), has been approved to relieve symptoms. It appears to work by increasing the flexibility of sickle cells.

About two thirds of people who have Hemophilia have inherited it. For the other third, there is no known cause for possessing the disorder. There are two types of hemophilia, Type A and Type B. Both are caused by a low level or a complete absence of protein in the blood. Without this protein, blood is not able to clot.

Some of the symptoms of Hemophilia are bleeding in the joints, knees, and ankles. Stiffness without pain in the joints, stiffness with a lot of warmth,(most ability for movement is lost due to swelling) blood in the urine or stool, excessive bleeding after surgery or loosing a tooth, excessive bruising, abnormal menstrual bleeding, and nose bleeds that last for long periods of time.

Hemophiliacs blood does not coagulate like a normal persons. Coagulation controls bleeding, it changes blood from a liquid to a solid. Within seconds of a cut or scrape, platelets, calcium and other tissue factors start working together to form a clot. Over a short time the clot strengthens and then dissolves as the injury heals. Hemophiliacs are missing the clotting factor, or it isn't working correctly which causes them to bleed for a longer time. The most common myth is that a person with a bleeding disorder will bleed to death from a minor wound or that their blood flows faster than somebody without a bleeding disorder. Some of the risks hemophilia are: Scarring of the joints or joint disease, vision loss from bleeding of the eyes, chronic anemia from blood loss, a neurological or psychiatric problem, death which may occur from large amounts of blood loss or bleeding in the brain or other vital organs. Most cases of hemophilia are caused from inherited disorders but sometimes people can get it from vitamin K deficiency, liver disease, or treatments like prolonged use of antibiotics or anti coagulation drugs. Hemophilia is the best known bleeding disorder and it has had the most research done on it, so hemophiliacs have a slight advantage over people with other bleeding disorders.

To treat Hemophilia, a Clotting Factor is needed. It is in the shape of powder kept in a small, sterile glass bottle. It has to be kept in the fridge. When needed, The Clotting Factor is mixed with sterile water, then one minute later it can be injected into a vein. It may also be mixed with a large amount of water and injected through an IV.

There are over 140 centers that specialize in hemophilia. Most of these centers are "Comprehensive Care Facilities". Comprehensive care facilities provide all the services needed by a hemophiliac and their family. Services provided include: Primary physician, nurse coordinator, physiotherapist, and dentist. Hemophiliacs require a special dentist because of the higher risk of bleeding. It is recommended that hemophiliacs go to the treatment centers twice a year for a complete check-up.

The basic and most common treatment for patients with hemophilia A and B is factor replacement therapy. Factor replacement therapy is the IV injection of Factor VIII and IX concentrates which help control bleeding. This concentrate comes from two sources: human plasma and genetically engineered cells made by DNA technology. This concentrate is what the hemophiliac is lacking in their own genes. After the injection is given the patients blood becomes "normal" for a couple of hours which gives time for a clot to from at the site of a damaged blood vessel. This treatment is not a permanent cure, within about 3 days there is no trace left in the system. Today's Factor treatments are much more concentrated than they were in the past so very little is required even if the patient is going in for major surgery or has a major injury. Treatments are also very convenient, they can be stored at home in the fridge for up to 6 months. So if the patient is injured they don't need to go to the hospital they can give themself an injection at home. After the injection it only takes about 15-20 minutes for the clotting process to begin. There is a risk of contracting other disease such as AIDS from Factor VIII that is made from human plasma, but as technology gets better the cases of AIDS has dropped. There is no possibility of contracting diseases from genetic engineering Factor VIII.

Hemophiliacs can live a long life. The most common reason for early death among patients has been from AIDS related complications.

Any disorder caused totally or in part by a fault (or faults) of the genetic material passed from parent to child is considered a genetic disorder. The genes for many of these disorders are passed from one generation to the next, and children born with a heritable genetic disorder often have one or more extended family members with the same disorder. There are also genetic disorders that appear due to spontaneous faults in the genetic material, in which case a child is born with a disorder with no apparent family history.

Down Syndrome, also known as Trisomy 21, is a chromosome abnormality that effects one out of every 800-1000 newborn babies. During anaphase II of meiosis the sister chromatids of chromosome 21 fail to separate, resulting in an egg with an extra chromosome, and a fetus with three copies (trisomy) of this chromosome. At birth this defect is recognizable because of the physical features such as almond shaped eyes, a flattened face, and less muscle tone than a normal newborn baby. During pregnancy, it is possible to detect the Down Syndrome defect by doing amniocentesis testing. There is a risk to the unborn baby and it is not recommended unless the pregnant mother is over the age of thirty-five. Other non-lethal chromosomal abnormalities include additional osex chromosome abnormalities which is when a baby girl (about 1 in 2,500)is born with one x instead of two (xx) this can cause physical abnormalities and defective reproduction systems. Boys can also be born with extra X's (XXY or XXXY) which will cause reproductive problems and sometimes mental retardation.

Chromosomal Abnormalities In most cases with a chromosomal abnormality all the cells are affected. Defects can have anywhere from little effect to a lethal effect depending on the type of abnormality. Of the 1 in 200 babies born having some sort of chromosomal abnormality, about 1/3 of these results in spontaneous abortion. Abnormalities usually form shortly after fertilization and mom or dad usually has the same abnormality. There is no cure for these abnormalities. Tests are possible early in pregnancy and if a problem is detected the parents can choose to abort the fetus.

Mutation is a permanent change in a segment of DNA.

Mutations are changes in the genetic material of the cell. Substances that can cause genetic mutations are called mutagen agents. Mutagen agents can be anything from radiation from x-rays, the sun, toxins in the earth, air, and water viruses. Many gene mutations are completely harmless since they do not change the amino acid sequence of the protein the gene codes for.

Mutations can be good, bad, or indifferent. They can be good for you because their mutation can be better and stronger than the original. They can be bad because it might take away the survival of the organism. However, most of the time, they are indifferent because the mutation is no different than the original.

The not so harmless ones can lead to cancer, birth defects, and inherited diseases. Mutations usually happen at the time of cell division. When the cell divides, one cell contracts a defect, which is then passed down to each cell as they continue to divide.

Excerpt from:

Human Physiology/Genetics and inheritance - Wikibooks ...

Myths of Human Genetics: Earlobes

Some people have earlobes that curve up between the lowest point of the earlobe and the point where the ear joins the head; these are known as "free" or "unattached" earlobes, as shown in the upper left of the picture below. Other people have earlobes that blend in with the side of the head, known as "attached" or "adherent" earlobes, as shown in the lower right.

Attached vs. free earlobes are often used to illustrate basic genetics. The myth is that earlobes can be divided into into two clear categories, free and attached, and that a single gene controls the trait, with the allele for free earlobes being dominant. Neither part of the myth is true.

Classroom exercises on earlobe genetics say that there are two distinct categories, free (F) and attached (A). However, many of the papers on earlobe genetics have pointed out that there are many people with intermediate earlobes (Quelprud 1934, Wiener 1937, Dutta and Ganguly 1965). El Kollali (2009) classified earlobes into three types, based on whether the attachment angle was acute, right, or obtuse. To make the picture above, I searched for pictures of professional bicyclists (because they have short hair), found 12 with their ears showing, and arranged them from free to attached. It doesn't look to me as if there are just two categories; instead, there is continuous variation in the height of the attachment point (the "otobasion inferius") relative to the lowest point on the earlobe (the "subaurale"). My own earlobes are exactly halfway in between the two extremes; I couldn't tell you whether my earlobes should be considered free or attached.

Carrire (1922) and Hilden (1922) were among the first to study the genetics of earlobes, and they reached opposite conclusions. Carrire (1922) looked at 15 families and concluded that attached earlobes were dominant. However, all of the offspring of A x A matings had attached earlobes, and there were no F x F matings, so his data are consistent with either free or attached being dominant.

Powell and Whitney (1937) looked at one family and concluded that attached earlobes were recessive. Wiener (1937) responded by pointing out that the "arbitrary classification into two sharply defined types...gives a false picture, since all gradations between the two extremes are encountered." He divided earlobes into four arbitrary groups, from 0 (completely free) to 3 (completely attached). All possible matings, from completely 0 x 0 to 3 x 3, produced some intermediate earlobes. Wiener (1937) concluded that earlobes were determined by more than one gene, or by a singe gene with more than two alleles.

Lai and Walsh (1966) called earlobes in which the lowest point on the earlobe was the attachment point "attached," and they classified all other earlobes as "free." They recorded the following data on families in New Guinea:

If the myth were true, two parents with attached earlobes could not have a child with a free earlobe. There are slightly more A offspring from A x A matings, but the large numbers of F offspring from A x A matings and A offspring from F x F matings indicate that this is not a one-locus, two-allele trait.

Mohanraju and Mukherjee (1973) performed a similar study in India and found similar results:

They found a much stronger association between parents and offspring, but the five F offspring of A x A matings are inconsistent with the myth that this is a one-locus, two-allele trait.

Earlobes do not fall into two categories, "free" and "attached"; there is continuous variation in attachment point, from up near the ear cartilage to well below the ear. While there is probably some genetic influence on earlobe attachment point, family studies show that it does not fit the simple one-locus, two-allele myth. You should not use earlobe attachment to demonstrate basic genetics.

Carrire, R. 1922. ber erbliche Orhformen, insbesondere das angewachsene Ohrlppchen. Zeitschrift fr Induktive Abstammungs- und Vererbungslehre 28: 288-242.

Dutta, P., and P. Ganguly. 1965. Further observations on ear lobe attachment. Acta Genetica 15: 77-86.

El Kollali, R. 2009. Earlobe morphology: a simple classification of normal earlobes. Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery 62: 277-280.

Hilden, K. 1922. ber die Form des Ohrlppchens beim Menschen und ihre Abhngigkeit von Erblanglagen. Hereditas 3: 351-357.

Lai, L.Y.C., and R.J. Walsh. 1966. Observations on ear lobe types. Acta Genetica 16: 250-257.

Mohanraju, C., and D.P. Mukherjee. 1973. Ear lobe attachment in an Andhra village and other parts of India. Human Heredity 23: 288-297.

Mowlavi, A., D.G. Meldrum, and B.J. Wilhelmi. 2004. Earlobe morphology delineated by two components: the attached cephalic segment and the free caudal segment. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery 113: 1075-1076.[not seen yet]

Powell, E.F., and D.D. Whitney. 1937. Ear lobe inheritance: an unusual three-generation photographic pedigree chart. Journal of Heredity 28: 184-186.

Quelprud, T. 1934. Familienforschungen ber Merkmale des usseren Ohres. Zeitschrift f Induktive Abstammungs- und Vererbungslehre 67: 296-299.

Wiener, A.S. 1937. Complications in ear genetics. Journal of Heredity 28: 425-426.

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Spiritual Awakening, And Spiritual Enlightenment

Since you found your way here, you must be aSeeker Of Truth, someone whos serious about how to achieve Enlightenment, Spiritual Enlightenment, Spiritual Awakening, Illumination, Mystical Consciousness, Presence, etc.

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There are generally two obstacles on the journey to getting there.

Problem 1.What is enlightenment, the spiritual awakening, and spiritual enlightenment in the first place?

Some people have a solid intellectual understanding of what Higher Consciousness means.

Some have no idea what it means. Its just an attractive target and they want the Experience.

Some people think they know what these terms mean, but they dont really.

Problem 2.I Understand what enlightenment and spiritual awakening are intellectually, but Im not experiencing it. I dont know how to achieve enlightenment and I want to.

Thats a far more common problem.Is it yours?

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I can show you how to achieve enlightenment; what spiritual awakening and spiritual enlightenment really are, what they really arent, and how to open into a direct and consistent Experience of The Real Thing.

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Spiritual Awakening, And Spiritual Enlightenment

Lynchburg, Virginia – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Lynchburg is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 75,568. The 2014 census estimates an increase to 79,047.[2] Located in the foothills of the Blue Ridge Mountains along the banks of the James River, Lynchburg is known as the "City of Seven Hills" or the "Hill City".[3] Lynchburg was the only major city in Virginia that was not captured by the Union before the end of the American Civil War.[4]

Lynchburg is the principal city of the Metropolitan Statistical Area of Lynchburg, near the geographic center of Virginia. It is the fifth largest MSA in Virginia with a population of 254,171[5] and hosts several institutions of higher education. Other nearby cities include Roanoke, Charlottesville, and Danville. Lynchburg's sister cities are Rueil-Malmaison, France and Glauchau, Germany.

A part of Monacan country upon the arrival of English settlers in Virginia, the region had traditionally been occupied by them and other Siouan Tutelo-speaking tribes since ca. 1270, driving Virginia Algonquians eastward. Explorer John Lederer visited one of the Siouan villages (Saponi) in 1670, on the Staunton River at Otter Creek, southwest of the present-day city, as did Batts and Fallam in 1671. The Siouans occupied the area until c. 1702, when it was taken in conquest by the Seneca Iroquois. The Iroquois ceded control to the Colony of Virginia beginning in 1718, and formally at the Treaty of Albany in 1721.

First settled in 1757, Lynchburg was named for its founder, John Lynch, who at the age of 17 started a ferry service at a ford across the James River to carry traffic to and from New London. He was also responsible for Lynchburg's first bridge across the river, which replaced the ferry in 1812. He and his mother are buried in the graveyard at the South River Friends Meetinghouse. The "City of Seven Hills" quickly developed along the hills surrounding Lynch's Ferry. Thomas Jefferson maintained a home near Lynchburg, called Poplar Forest. Jefferson frequented Lynchburg and remarked "Nothing would give me greater pleasure than to be useful to the town of Lynchburg. I consider it as the most interesting spot in the state."

Lynchburg was established by charter in 1786 at the site of Lynch's Ferry on the James River. These new easy means of transportation routed traffic through Lynchburg, and allowed it to become the new center of commerce for tobacco trading. In 1810, Jefferson wrote, "Lynchburg is perhaps the most rising place in the U.S.... It ranks now next to Richmond in importance..." Lynchburg became a center of commerce and manufacture in the 19th century, and by the 1850s, Lynchburg (along with New Bedford, Mass.) was one of the richest towns per capita in the U.S.[6] Chief industries were tobacco, iron and steel. Transportation facilities included the James River Bateau on the James River, and later, the James River and Kanawha Canal and, still later, four railroads, including the Virginia and Tennessee Railroad and the Norfolk and Petersburg Railroad.

Early on, Lynchburg was not known for its religiosity. In 1804, evangelist Lorenzo Dow wrote of Lynchburg "... where I spoke in the open air in what I conceived to be the seat of Satan's Kingdom. Lynchburg was a deadly place for the worship of God." This was in reference to the lack of churches in Lynchburg. As the wealth of Lynchburg grew, prostitution and other "rowdy" activities became quite common and, in many cases, ignored, if not accepted, by the "powers that be" of the time. Much of this activity took place in an area of downtown referred to as the "Buzzard's Roost[citation needed]."

During the American Civil War, Lynchburg, which served as a Confederate supply base, was approached within 1-mile (1.6km) by the Union forces of General David Hunter as he drove south from the Shenandoah Valley. Under the false impression that the Confederate forces stationed in Lynchburg were much larger than anticipated, Hunter was repelled by the forces of Confederate General Jubal Early on June 18, 1864, in the Battle of Lynchburg. To create the false impression, a train was continuously run up and down the tracks while the citizens of Lynchburg cheered as if reinforcements were unloading. Local prostitutes took part in the deception, misinforming their Union clients of the large number of Confederate reinforcements.

From April 610, 1865, Lynchburg served as the Capital of Virginia. Under Governor William Smith, the executive and legislative branches of the commonwealth escaped to Lynchburg with the fall of Richmond. Then Gen. Robert E. Lee surrendered to Gen. Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Courthouse, roughly 20 miles east of Lynchburg, ending the Civil War.

In the latter 19th century, Lynchburg's economy evolved into manufacturing (sometimes referred to as the "Pittsburgh of the South") and, per capita, made the city one of the wealthiest in the United States. In 1880, Lynchburg resident James Albert Bonsack invented the first cigarette rolling machine. Shortly thereafter Dr. Charles Browne Fleet, a physician and pharmacological tinkerer, introduced the first mass marketed over-the-counter enema. About this time, Lynchburg was also the preferred site for the Norfolk & Western junction with the Shenandoah Valley Railroad. However, the citizens of Lynchburg did not want the junction due to the noise and pollution it would create. Therefore, it was located in what would become the City of Roanoke.

In the late 1950s, a number of interested citizens, including Virginia Senator Mosby G. Perrow, Jr., requested the federal government to change its long-planned route for the interstate highway now known as I-64 between Clifton Forge and Richmond.[7] Since the 1940s, maps of the federal interstate highway system depicted that highway taking a northern route, with no interstate highway running through Lynchburg, but the federal government assured Virginia that the highway's route would be decided by the state.[8] A proposed southern route called for the Interstate to follow from Richmond via US-360 and US-460, via Lynchburg to Roanoke and US-220 from Roanoke to Clifton Forge, then west following US-60 into West Virginia. Although the State Highway Commission's minutes reflected its initial approval of the northern route, the issue remained in play,[9] proponents of the southern route ultimately succeeded in persuading a majority of Virginia Highway Commissioners to support the change after a study championed by Perrow demonstrated that it would serve a greater percentage of the state's manufacturing and textile centers. But in July 1961 Governor Lindsay Almond and U.S. Secretary of Commerce Luther Hodges announced that the route would not be changed.[10] This left Lynchburg as the only city with a population in excess of 50,000 (at the time) not served by an interstate.[11]

For several decades throughout the mid-20th century, the state of Virginia authorized compulsory sterilization of the mentally retarded for the purpose of eugenics. The operations were carried out at the Virginia State Colony for Epileptics and Feebleminded, now known as the Central Virginia Training School, located just outside Lynchburg in Madison Heights. An estimated 8,300 Virginians were sterilized and relocated to Lynchburg, known as a "dumping ground" of sorts for the feeble-minded, poor, blind, epileptic, and those otherwise seen as genetically "unfit".[12]

Sterilizations were carried out for 35 years until 1972, when operations were finally halted. Later in the late 1970s, the American Civil Liberties Union filed a class-action lawsuit against the state of Virginia on behalf of the sterilization victims. As a result of this suit, the victims received formal apologies and counseling if they chose. Requests to grant the victims reverse sterilization operations were denied.

Carrie Buck, the plaintiff in the United States Supreme Court case Buck v. Bell, was sterilized after being classified as "feeble-minded", as part of the state's eugenics program while she was a patient at the Lynchburg Colony for Epileptics and Feebleminded.

The story of Carrie Buck's sterilization and the court case was made into a television drama in 1994, Against Her Will: The Carrie Buck Story.

"Virginia State Epileptic Colony," a song by the Manic Street Preachers on their 2009 album 'Journal For Plague Lovers,' addresses the state's program of eugenics.

Downtown Lynchburg has seen a significant amount of revitalization since 2002 with hundreds of new loft apartments created through adaptive reuse of historic warehouses and mills. Since 2000, there has been more than $110 million in private investment in downtown and business activity increased by 205% from 2004 - 2014.[13] In 2014, 75 new apartments were added to downtown with 155 further units under construction increasing the number of housing units downtown by 48% from 2010 - 2014.[14] In 2015, the $5.8 million Lower Bluffwalk pedestrian street zone opened to the public in downtown which has seen a significant amount of residential and commercial development around the zone in recent years.[15] Notable projects underway in downtown by the end of 2015 include the $25 million Hilton Curio branded Virginian Hotel restoration project, $16.6 million restoration of the Academy Center of the Arts, and $4.6 million expansion of Amazement Square Children's Museum. [16][17][18][19]

Over 40 sites in Lynchburg are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[20]

Lynchburg is located at 372413N 791012W / 37.40361N 79.17000W / 37.40361; -79.17000 (37.403672, 79.170205).

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 49.6 square miles (128.5km2), of which 49.2 square miles (127.4km2) is land and 0.5 square miles (1.3km2) (1.0%) is water.[21]

Lynchburg has a four-season humid subtropical climate (Kppen Cfa), with cool winters and hot, humid summers. The monthly daily average temperature ranges from 35.1F (1.7C) in January to 75.3F (24.1C) in July. Nights tend to be significantly cooler than days throughout much of the year due in part to the moderate elevation. In a typical year, there are 26 days with a high temperature 90F (32C) or above, and 7.5 days with a high of 32F (0C) or below.[22] Snowfall averages 12.9 inches (33cm) per season but this amount varies highly with each winter; the snowiest winter is 199596 with 56.8in (144cm) of snow, but the following winter recorded only trace amounts, the least on record.[23]

Temperature extremes range from 106F (41C), recorded on July 10, 1936, down to 11F (24C), recorded on February 20, 2015.[22] However, several decades may pass between 100F (38C) and 0F (18C) readings, with the last such occurrences being July 8, 2012 and February 20, 2015, respectively.[22]

As of the 2010 census,[31] there were 75,568 people, 25,477 households, and 31,992 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,321.5 people per square mile (510.2/km). There were 27,640 housing units at an average density of 559.6 per square mile (216.1/km). The racial makeup of the city was 63.0% White, 29.3% African American, 0.2% Native American, 2.5% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.63% from other races, and 1.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.0% of the population.

There were 25,477 households out of which 27.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.6% were married couples living together, 16.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.8% were non-families. 32.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 2.92.

The age distribution of the city had: 22.1% under the age of 18, 15.5% from 18 to 24, 25.3% from 25 to 44, 20.8% from 45 to 64, and 16.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 84.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.1 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $32,234, and the median income for a family was $40,844. Males had a median income of $31,390 versus $22,431 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,263. About 12.3% of families and 15.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.4% of those under age 18 and 10.7% of those age 65 or over.

Lynchburg ranks below the 2006 median annual household income for the U.S. as a whole, which was $48,200, according to the US Census Bureau.[32]

The city's population was stable for 25+ years: in 2006, it was 67,720; in 2000, it was 65,269; in 1990, it was 66,049; in 1980, it was 66,743.[33]

In 2009 almost 27% of Lynchburg children lived in poverty. The state average that year was 14 percent.[34]

Lynchburg features a skilled labor force, low unemployment rate,[35] and below average cost of living. Of Virginia's larger metro areas, Forbes Magazine ranked Lynchburg the 5th best place in Virginia for business in 2006, with Virginia being the best state in the country for business.[36] Only 6 places in Virginia were surveyed and most of Virginia's cities were grouped together by Forbes as "Northern Virginia". Lynchburg achieved the rank 109 in the whole nation in the same survey.

Industries within the Lynchburg MSA include nuclear technology, pharmaceuticals and material handling. A diversity of small businesses with the region has helped maintain a stable economy and minimized the downturns of the national economy.[37][38] Reaching as high as 1st place (tied) in 2007, Lynchburg has been within the Top 10 Digital Cities survey for its population since the survey's inception in 2004.

The Lynchburg News & Advance reports that while more people are working than ever in greater Lynchburg, wages since 1990 have not kept up with inflation. Central Virginia Labor Council President Walter Fore believes this is due to lack of white-collar jobs. According to the Census Bureau, adjusted for inflation, 1990 median household income was about $39,000 compared to 2009 median household income of $42,740. As of 2009 Forbes has named Lynchburg as the 70th best metro area for business and careers, ahead of Chicago and behind Baton Rouge. The reason for the decent ranking was due to the low cost of living and low wages in Lynchburg. In other areas, the region didn't come in as strong. It ranked at 189 for cultural and leisure and at 164 for educational attainment.[39]

Virginia Business Magazine reports that Young Professionals in Lynchburg recently conducted a study that clearly showed how much of its young workforce has been lost.[40]

According to Lynchburg's 2012 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report,[41] the top private employers in the city are:

The city is served by the Lynchburg City Public Schools. The school board is appointed by the Lynchburg City Council.

The city is also home to a number of mostly religious private schools, including Holy Cross Regional Catholic School, James River Day School, Liberty Christian Academy, New Covenant Classical Christian School, Appomattox Christian Academy, Temple Christian School, and Virginia Episcopal School.

Lynchburg is also home to the Central Virginia Governor's School for Science and Technology located in Heritage High School. This magnet school consists of juniors and seniors selected from each of the Lynchburg area high schools. As one of eighteen Governor's Schools in Virginia, the Central Virginia Governor's School focuses on infusing technology into both the math and science curriculum.

Further education options include a number of surrounding county public school systems.

Colleges and universities in Lynchburg include Central Virginia Community College, Liberty University, Lynchburg College, Randolph College, Sweet Briar College, and Virginia University of Lynchburg.

The Greater Lynchburg Transit Company (GLTC) operates the local public transport bus service within the city. The GLTC additionally provides the shuttle bus service on the Liberty University campus.

The GLTC has selected a property directly across from Lynchburg-Kemper Street Station as its top choice of sites upon which to build the new transfer center for their network of public buses. They are interested in facilitating intermodal connections between GLTC buses and the intercity bus and rail services which operate from that location. The project is awaiting final government approval and funding, and is expected to be completed around 2013.[42]

Intercity passenger rail and bus services are based out of Kemper Street Station, a historic, three-story train station recently restored and converted by the city of Lynchburg to serve as an intermodal hub for the community. The station is located at 825 Kemper Street.[43]

Greyhound Lines located their bus terminal in the main floor of Kemper Street Station following its 2002 restoration.[43] Greyhound offers transport to other cities throughout Virginia, the US, Canada, and Mexico.

Amtrak's long distance Crescent and a Northeast Regional connect Lynchburg with Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, Charlotte, Atlanta, Birmingham, New Orleans and intermediate points.

In October 2009, Lynchburg became the southern terminus for a Northeast Regional that previously had overnighted in Washington. The forecast ridership was 51,000 for the 180-mile extension's first year, but the actual count was triple that estimate, and the train paid for itself without any subsidy.[44] By FY 2015, the Regional had 190,000 riders. The Lynchburg station alone served a total of 85,000 riders in 2015. It is located in the track level ground floor of Kemper Street Station.[45]

Lynchburg has two major freight railroads. It is the crossroads of two Norfolk Southern lines. One is the former mainline of the Southern Railway, upon which Kemper Street Station is situated. NS has a classification yard located next to the shopping mall. Various yard jobs can be seen. Railfans who wish to visit the NS Lynchburg yard are advised to inquire with an NS official. CSX Transportation also has a line through the city and a small yard.

Lynchburg Regional Airport is solely served by American Eagle to Charlotte. American Eagle, a subsidiary of American Airlines, is the only current scheduled airline service provider, with seven daily arrivals and departures. In recent years air travel has increased with 157,517 passengers flying in and out of the airport in 2012, representing 78% of the total aircraft load factor for that time period.

Primary roadways include U.S. Route 29, U.S. Route 501, U.S. Route 221, running north-south, and U.S. Highway 460, running east-west. While not served by an interstate, much of Route 29 has been upgraded to interstate standards and significant improvements have been made to Highway 460.

In a Forbes magazine survey, Lynchburg ranked 189 for cultural and leisure out of 200 cities surveyed.[39]

The following attractions are located within the Lynchburg MSA:

Lynchburg is home to sporting events and organizations including:

The first neighborhoods of Lynchburg developed upon seven hills adjacent to the original ferry landing. These neighborhoods include:

Other major neighborhoods include Boonsboro, Rivermont, Fairview Heights, Fort Hill, Forest Hill (Old Forest Rd. Area), Timberlake, Windsor Hills, Sandusky, Linkhorne, and Wyndhurst.

Notable residents of Lynchburg include:

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Lynchburg, Virginia - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Top Nude Beaches : Beaches : Travel Channel

1. Little Beach

Thinkstock

Mr Boz, flickr

Just north of Miami lies one of the few county-run and government-sanctioned clothing-optional beaches in the United States. For years Haulover Beach has been a haven for naturists from South Florida as well as snowbirds from Canada and Europe. Thanks to the efforts of the South Florida Free Beach Association, this beach has certified lifeguards and organized group activities, such as swimming and volleyball.

Thinkstock

Andrew Herdy, Wikimedia Creative Commons

Johann Vanbeek, Wikimedia Creative Commons

Raguy, Wikimedia Creative Commons

MsNina, flickr

Named for a hulking, wrecked vessel that once sat on the sand, Wreck Beach was Canada's first government-sanctioned, clothing-optional beach. The 3-mile-long beach is also a wildlife and nesting area for bald eagles. Still, some sections of the beach assume carnival-like atmosphere thanks to its proximity to the University of British Columbia and its popularity with students. One stretch of sand known as Vendors' Row is a 1-stop shop for souvenirs, refreshments and ever-important sunscreen.

Tomash Devenishek, flickr

SORTIR, Wikimedia Creative Commons

xitraveler, flickr

Brian Fisk, flickr

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Top Nude Beaches : Beaches : Travel Channel

Michigan Beaches – Best Beaches in Michigan

When you think of a beach vacation, you might start by looking at various beaches in Florida. But, you just might want to consider Michigan beaches for your next spot for fun in the sun. The Lake Michigan shoreline along western Michigan is often called the third coast. Consider that Michigan has more freshwater shoreline than any other state and you begin to understand why it is a good place to go for your next beach vacation. Numerous beach towns line the coast in Michigan, and their quality is found both in the scenery and bevy of attractions offered in an around them. Along the entire western coast of lower Michigan, you'll find a number of hot spots for getting away from it all, and it is here that you'll arguably find the best Michigan beaches. However, in a state almost surrounded entirely by water, who's to say where the best beaches lay?

In the Upper Peninsula you'll find Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore with its own beaches, however Lake Superior is the coldest of the Great Lakes, so the beaches found here probably don't offer the best swimming possibilities. But throw on a wetsuit and you can enjoy kayaking, and the relative seclusion of the area makes it a welcome place to relax.

Among the most noted best Michigan beaches is Oval Beach in Saugatuck. Oval Beach was rated by Conde Nast as one of the top 25 beaches in the world, and National Geographic Traveler went on to name it one of the top two in the nation. That in and of itself should pique your interest in Lake Michigan beaches. Michigan Governor Granholm named Saugatuck among the 19 "coolest cities" in the state, and no doubt the city earns this distinction. In the area, there are top Michigan golf courses, its art community is renowned, and vacation rentals here vary from hotels and motels, to charming bed and breakfasts and vacation home rentals that will ensure your satisfaction. Its simply the perfect place for your next corporate event, family vacation, or romantic getaway.

Up the coast, the quality of Lake Michigan beaches continues. The naturally forming sand dunes have a lot to do with this. Sand dunes line most of the coast and form as the sweeping winds from the west move inland over the lake. They are stunning, and provide a picturesque backdrop to the beaches that has to be seen to be appreciated. Climbing them is a favorite activity for kids and adults the same, and the views are a reward for the work. At seaside retreats like Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore and Silver Lake, you'll find camping and hiking to rival your best expectations. These parks are rich in scenery and you'll want to check out Silver Lake Sand Dunes for the chance to take your 4x4 or dirt bike dune-riding, which is an experience you'll be hard-pressed to find anywhere else. If you don't have a 4x4 or dirt bike, you can take an organized dune-riding tour, an experience you won't soon forget.

Towns like Muskegon, South Haven and Holland not only offer some of the best Michigan beaches, but also so much more. Summer festivals seem to always be going on and cultural attractions include historical sites and tours, great shopping and dining, kayak and jet-ski rentals, amusement parks and charming tours at some of the top Michigan wineries.

Michigan beaches are steadily getting the respect they deserve. A popular PBS series called Great Lakes Ports of Call is highlighting towns along the western coast of lower Michigan. These towns gain distinction in the "Michigan Beactowns" label and they are New Buffalo, St. Joseph, South Haven, Saugatuck-Douglas, Holland, Grand Haven, Muskegon, Silver Lake Sand Dunes, and Ludington. Lake Michigan beaches offer you and your family the next great spot for your summer vacation.

Although not as popular for its beaches, the Lake Huron shoreline of Michigan offers some nice retreats as well. Instead of the sunsets on the western side of the state, here you'll be treated to some beautiful sunrises. Camping and kayaking along the Lake Huron shore is a great way to spend time away from the cares of the world. You also might be lucky enough to catch some Northern Lights depending on where you are.

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Michigan Beaches - Best Beaches in Michigan