You can build a working PC inside Minecraft that plays games, including Doom and Minecraft – TechSpot

Posted on by

In a nutshell: Have you ever had the urge to play Minecraft while playing Minecraft? Now, such an unlikely scenario is possible, thanks to a mod that lets you build a computer in-game that can boot several working operating systems.

The feat is possible thanks to the VM Computers mod that comes from delta2force. It uses the open source VirtualBox to run operating systems, including Windows 95, Linux, and more.

The mod itself goes straight into your mods folder, and youll also have to grab VirtualBox 6.1 or newer. But the work doesnt end there: youve still got to get your in-game PC. This involves crafting an ordering tablet and then waiting until a satellite passes over you, which happens five times per day.

Once youve created your virtual hard drive, imported the ISO files, and built your computer, its time for some Inception-like game-within-a-game fun; its possible to play a game of Minecraft within Minecraft.

As is the case with almost everything on the planet, the mod also lets you play Doom 1993 inside the best-selling game of all time, as demonstrated by redditor uDrunkMate.

Weve already seen Windows 95 running via a desktop app, Nintendo 3DS, Apple Watch, Xbox One, and more, but it pales in comparison to Doom. The venerable fps was recently made to work on the Playdate, a retro-style handheld that uses a crank controller. Its also been imported to a McDonalds cash register, John McAfees unhackable crypto wallet, Apples touch bar, a Porsche 911, inkjet printers, a Commodore 64, ATMs, calculators, iPods, and, like Minecraft, on virtual console within the game itself.

Read this article:

You can build a working PC inside Minecraft that plays games, including Doom and Minecraft - TechSpot

Do Not Ignore These Points if You Want To Win at Online Casinos – GameIndustry.com

Posted on by

The online casino has become one of the important sources of entertainment in the last few years. Apart from just the entertainment factor, the casino will help you to boost your bankroll. Depending on the casino playing skill level that you possess, you will opt for the casino games. If you are a beginner, you should opt for the ones that are easy to play. On the other hand, if you are pro in casino gaming, you can choose the ones that are tougher and complicated. However, card games are mostly good for experienced players.

Moreover, if you have experience in playing the cards and the other types of table games, you can try out the casino games as like Casino winner and a wide range of poker, Blackjack and so on.

Before you start to play the online casino, make sure that you have chosen the reputed and trusted casino. There are so many casino platforms to choose, and you might get confused to choose the best one for you. For this, you can check out the reviews or testimonials of the players who have previously played the casino games from that particular platform. The choosing of the online casino will largely depend on the type of casino game that you liked.

SELECT THE GAMES THAT YOU LIKE TO PLAY

If you want to boost up your bank balance or want to you feel comfortable while you are playing, the best thing to do is to choose the game that you like to play. Whether you like to play the Blackjack, poker or the newly launched casino game mystino, it is very important to know the game in details and also know to play the game and earn money. It is very important to learn the game as it will increase the chances of winning the game.

START LOW WITH THE HELP OF LOW STAKES

If you are an experienced casino player, you must know that the online casinos have the house hedge. It is generally lower than the land-based casinos. But still, the house edge exists. No matter whether you are totally new to the casino game or you have some knowledge about the game, do not go fast.

Get to know the rules of the game start with the low stakes and slowly build the way up in the game. This will help you to boost the chances of winning the game.

AVOID THE UNREALISTIC CASINO GAME SITES

Yes, as I told earlier, there are various casino sites available, and some might claim to offer the best gaming experiences, but do not fall on the trap. Some of the casino sites online are fake and give unrealistic claims. As you are giving your personal details and the bank details, be sure to choose the one that is legal.

Apart from these, you should not avoid the free play option in the casino gaming portal. You should do not keep away from the bonuses and promotion. Hence from the points, you can know how to win casino online.

Follow this link:

Do Not Ignore These Points if You Want To Win at Online Casinos - GameIndustry.com

Bermuda Introduces a One-Year Visa That Allows Digital Nomads to Work From an Island – Robb Report

Posted on by

You may not be able to work from the office at the moment, but US residents can now take their work-from-home set-up on the roador more precisely, to a sandy Bermuda beach. Following the passage of new legislation, Bermuda has just announced the August 1st launch of the One Year Residential Certification program, which grants non-Bermudians permission to work or study from the island for twelve months, with unlimited entries/exits allowed. With the island located less than three hours from major East Coast cities via non-stop flights, several five-star resorts and villa companies offering monthly residential rentals and even private islands available for exclusive use, theres never been a better time to call Bermuda homeand the office.

Bermuda has always warmly welcomed visitors to her pink sand shoreline, and we are excited to continue that tradition of hospitality with this revised long-stay residency program, Glenn Jones, Interim CEO of Bermuda Tourism Authority, tells Robb Report. This initiative paves the way for an infusion of economic activity for local businesses (and gives us) an opportunity to share our uncrowded open spaces and coveted island lifestyle with travelers from across the globe looking to work or study remotely. Jones adds that thanks to proactive leadership, Bermuda has also managed the pandemic well, with the island re-opening safely and responsibly to regular commercial flights from around the world, including the US, on July 1; find more about its Covid-19 travel policies and requirements here.

The six-bedroom Residence at The Loren is a top long-term rental optionCourtesy The Loren

Once the program goes live on August 1, those interested in being a digital nomad (and who meet the program requirements) can apply for the residency certificate via the governments website, for a one-time application fee of $263. Once approved, newly minted residents are welcome to enter and exit as needed for one year, and can settle down anywhere on the 21-square-mile island. Notable high-end residential rental options include the one- and three-bedroom seaside Villas and the six-bedroom Residence (complete with private beach, tennis court, gym, staff cottages and chefs kitchen) at The Loren at Pink Beach; the two-and three-bedroom Residences at the Rosewood Bermuda resort on Tuckers Point, close to the famed golf course; and the homes and villas available through membership-based companies like Thirdhome. You can also hide away on a private island: Hawkins Private Island, for example, features a Main Villa and a Guard House (both of which sleep eight guests), with rates that include all meals and beverage, boat transfers to the Waterfront Marina, docking fees for boats and yachts, a full staff, watersports equipment and more (contact reservations directly for details on rates.)

Go here to see the original:

Bermuda Introduces a One-Year Visa That Allows Digital Nomads to Work From an Island - Robb Report

Tahiti and Bora Bora are Open to Travellers Again – Outlook India

Posted on by

The islands of Tahiti are now open to tourists across the world. And unlike most popular destinations that have re-opened to tourists, a quarantine period is not mandatory.

Tahit had a small number of COVID cases during the spring months. However, the measures to curb the spread were quite effective, and it has been declared as COVID-free.

Earlier, the islands had banned all international and domestic passenger flights, except the special territorial continuity flights linking Tahiti and Paris. That's because they comprise French Polynesia, an overseas collectivity of France made up of five archipelagoes in the south-central Pacific Ocean. The capital, Papeete, is on Tahiti, French Polynesias largest island..

There are however, a set of health and safety procedures travellers must follow. They will have to provide proof of a negative COVID-19 test, taken within 72 hours of their international departure, and only PCR tests are accepted. Visitors must also carry proof of travel insurance and of a pre-booked accommodation. They must complete an entry form before boarding and must be ready to accept any random on-the-spot test on arrival at Tahitis Faaa International Airport.

Travellers will be given a self-test kit to be used on the fourth day of arrival. Wearing a mask during the in-bound flight and at public places during their stay is mandatory.

Should any traveller test positive during their stay, they will be taken to Tahiti for treatment and observation by local health authorities

French Polynesia has several top-notch resorts at secluded islands perfect for social distancing. After the pandemic, hospitality centres have completely redesigned their functioning to ensure guest safety, and have declared their readiness to host tourists from around the globe.

One of the most popular island stays, the Four Seasons Resort Bora Bora (located on a private reef islet) is already getting booking enquiries. Accessible only by a boat or helicopter, this private island's newly-enhanced overwater bungalows and beachfront estates have natural barriers to crowds. Similarly, the St. Regis Bora Bora Resort is also practising physical distancing by setting up digital contactless communication throughout their overwater villas and spas.

Read the rest here:

Tahiti and Bora Bora are Open to Travellers Again - Outlook India

Jeffrey Epstein conspiracy theories? All the private island theories – Film Daily

Posted on by

Who lives in a pineapple under the sea? Not Jeffrey Epstein, but conspiracy theorists will tell you he does! With all the horrible true facts about the Jeffrey Epstein case coming to light, there are some flat-out false ones in the mix, too.

From Jeffrey Epsteins island sharing Spongebob Squarepants address to winning the Congressional Medal of Freedom, here are the wildest conspiracy theories we discovered about Jeffrey Epstein.

Google Maps works like Wikipedia. Anyone can edit it. While errors and prank edits are swiftly taken down, it takes one person to edit Jeffrey Epsteins island address to create a conspiracy theory. Someone, or maybe many someones, edited the info for Little St. James on Google Maps to the dwelling of a fictional sponge.

Specifically, they listed the address for a theme park on Jeffrey Epsteins island as 124 Conch St. Bikini Bottom US Virgin Islands. The made-up address appears in several episodes of Spongebob Squarepants as the pineapple house of Spongebob. The internet jumped, and some people accused Nickelodeon of being involved.

No such case. When Jeffrey Epsteins island was raided in 2020, Little St. James real addresses were revealed, none of which involved Conch St. or Bikini Bottom.

Not according to Chrissy Teigan, who took to social media to slam the rumors of her involvement with Jeffrey Epstein. The rumors spread to the point where Teigan had to delete thousands of tweets and is worried for her family as a result.

The rumor started when someone on the internet falsely claimed she was in Jeffrey Epsteins flight logs, traveling to his island, Little St. James. While the leaked flight logs didnt show Chrissy Teigans name, the 35-year-old model and mother of two still received death threats for her alleged connection to Epstein.

Finally, after scrubbing 60,000 hate tweets, Chrissy Teigan broke down in a Twitter rant, dismissing the rumors. When someone called her defensive in response, she snapped back. This I dont get, everyone thinking Im guilty because Im defensive. You understand you are calling me a pedophile, correct?

The people who started this rumor need to go back to history class. Barack Obama wasnt elected president until 2008 and wasnt inaugurated until 2009. Were not sure how this rumor got started, but we know Jeffrey Epstein didnt earn the Presidential Medal of Freedom from any president, not even the president of his own island.

Theres a list of every Medal of Freedom recipient ever, and Jeffrey Epsteins name isnt on it. The Medal of Freedom is the highest civilian honor a US citizen can receive. Its usually bestowed for outstanding achievements in arts, media, education, or science. Not even the president in 2007, George W Bush, awarded Epstein this honor.

A rumor that Jeffrey Epstein sacrificed children on his island emerged when photos of a temple-like structure on Little St. James surfaced. The raid on Epsteins island showed multiple buildings, including an odd building that looked like a doomsday temple. It didnt help that the building featured a bird on top that looked like a harpy.

Other people pointed out that the bird statue on top of the building looked like Moloch. Moloch was an ancient god mentioned in The Bible that demanded child sacrifices. The connection was enough for people to believe Jeffrey Epstein sacrificed kids on his island.

No evidence came out that blood sacrifices took place on Jeffrey Epsteins island. However, some people believe the temple was an homage to Ancient Greece, where wealthy, powerful men having sex with teenagers was a common cultural practice.

View post:

Jeffrey Epstein conspiracy theories? All the private island theories - Film Daily

The Last Days of the Tech Emperors? – The New York Times

Posted on by

On Wednesday, Representative David Cicilline, Democrat of Rhode Island and chairman of the House Judiciary Committees antitrust subcommittee, opened a half-virtual hearing on Online Platforms and Market Power with a combative opening statement: Our founders would not bow before a king. Nor should we bow before the emperors of the online economy.

That set the tone for the hours of sharp questioning of four of the wealthiest people on the planet: Jeff Bezos of Amazon, Tim Cook of Apple, Sundar Pichai of Google and Mark Zuckerberg of Facebook, whose companies have a combined market value roughly equivalent to the G.D.P. of Japan.

Given the history of Silicon Valleys relationship with Washington, the intensity and precision of some subcommittee members questions were remarkable. It is a sign that significant tech regulation may be closer than we think.

Despite its techno-libertarian image, the tech industry has had close political ties for decades and remarkable success in getting what it wants.

In the late 1970s, venture capitalists and semiconductor chief executives got Capitol Hill and the Carter White House to agree to tax cuts and looser financial regulations. In the 1980s, a group of young legislators became such boosters of the industry that they were known as Atari Democrats. Ronald Reagan extolled Silicon Valley entrepreneurship and helped tech companies fend off Japanese competition.

The bipartisan love affair intensified in the 1990s as Bill Clinton and Al Gore invited tech executives to shape early internet-era policymaking. Newt Gingrich, then the Republican speaker of the House, talked up cyberspace and formed close alliances with libertarian-minded tech thinkers. His partys leaders convened high-tech summits on Capitol Hill.

The lightly regulated online economy we have today is a product of that decade, when Silicon Valley leaders persuaded starry-eyed lawmakers that young, scrappy internet companies could regulate themselves.

Washingtons embrace of tech continued even as questions emerged about the industrys wealth and power. A 2013 Senate hearing to interrogate Mr. Cook about Apples tax avoidance quickly was sidetracked by lawmakers gushing to the chief executive about his companys innovative products. Mr. Pichai faced tough questions at a 2018 House Judiciary hearing, but also was showered with praise.

Google is still the story of the American dream, declared Representative Robert W. Goodlatte of Virginia, the committees chairman at the time.

Those days seemed a dim memory Wednesday. Instead, the mood recalled the traffic safety debates of the mid-1960s that helped catalyze significantly more regulation for the auto industry. After a steady drumbeat of studies and some short-lived congressional inquiries, traffic safety exploded into the public consciousness starting with Senate hearings in the summer of 1965, where top auto executives faced sharp questions about their lax approach to safety.

The evening network news programs showed Robert F. Kennedy, a newly elected senator from New York, grilling the leaders of General Motors about the tiny amount the company spent on safety research. Later that year a young lawyer advising the Senate committee, Ralph Nader, published a blockbuster expos of the industry, Unsafe at Any Speed.

This combination of political and media scrutiny led to passage of the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1966, which mandated seatbelts and additional car safety features, as well as road improvements like guardrails and traffic barriers.

Wednesday felt like Big Techs Ralph Nader moment: the pointed questioning by committee members, notably its Democratic women like Representatives Val Demings of Florida, Pramila Jayapal of Washington, Lucy McBath of Georgia and Mary Gay Scanlon of Pennsylvania; the crescendo of investigative journalism that, in part, led to this weeks hearing by shining a critical light on Big Techs practices. And now, this House subcommittee is merely one of several legislative or regulatory bodies considering limits on Big Techs power.

There are of course many reasons tech regulation may not come to pass. The issues at stake are wickedly complex, and quite different for each of these companies, something chief executives sought to underscore in the hearing.

It appears to me, Mr. Bezos observed, that social media is a nuance-destruction machine, and I dont think thats helpful for a democracy. (Mr. Zuckerbergs reaction to that statement sadly was not visible to the audience.)

Large tech companies also have prepared for the regulatory onslaught by starting some of the most well-funded lobbying operations in Washington. They learned a lesson from Microsoft, whose presence in the capital before its antitrust case in 1998 consisted of one employee who worked out of the back of his car because he lacked proper office space.

Although the trial didnt end with Microsoft being ordered to break itself apart, it taught the company that government regulators needed to be taken seriously. And as a result Microsoft tamped down its most aggressive market practices, and escaped much of the yearslong policy scrutiny now facing its peers.

Then there is the sticky problem of public opinion. During other seminal moments carmakers in the 1960s, tobacco in the 1990s the problems posed by unregulated bigness were clear-cut. Cigarettes killed people. Cars were unsafe.

Techs consumer dangers are harder to see and acutely feel on an average day: misinformation, an incomplete search result, an unfairly promoted link, privacy erosion, a skewed algorithm. We may wish we used our smartphones less, or worry about what overuse of social media is doing to our communities and brains.

But we still routinely check our Facebook pages, buy apps via Apple, and click buy on Amazon Prime. Even if, as some representatives noted, we do so because we have little alternative.

What happens next will depend on many things, including the November election. But this week marks the end of Washingtons great love affair with tech, one that helped make these companies bigness possible in the first place.

View original post here:

The Last Days of the Tech Emperors? - The New York Times

US House of Representatives Missouri District 6 | News – Southernminn.com

Posted on by

Name: Sam Graves

Residence: Tarkio, Missouri

Party: Republican

Background: University of Missouri (agronomy); farmer; Missouri Senate; U.S. House since 2001.

Platform: Supports gun rights, strong national defense, reduction of federal regulations to create jobs, strengthening the nation's infrastructure, replacing income tax with a national sales tax.

Name: Chris Ryan

Residence: Liberty, Missouri

Party: Republican

Background: Park University degree in public administration; served in U.S. Marines; candidate for 6th District seat in 2012, 2014 and 2016.

Platform: National debt, securing the nations borders, taking care of veterans and self-imposition of term limits.

Name: Henry Martin

Residence: Kansas City, Missouri

Party: Democrat

Background: Army veteran, served in Iraq; National Guard; math teacher, coach and school administrator.

Platform: Justice reform, infrastructure, health care and expansion of internet broadband.

Name: Dr. Gena Ross

Residence: Platte City, Missouri

Party: Democrat

Background: Minneapolis native; doctorate in public policy and administration from Walden University; teaches at Kansas City, Kansas, Community College.

Platform: Infrastructure, health care, education, expansion of internet broadband, public engagement, increase in federal minimum wage.

Name: Charles West

Residence: Canton, Missouri

Party: Democrat

Background: Culver-Stockton College; account manager for electrical contracting company; member Clark County school board.

Platform: Education, health care, infrastructure, jobs and working together for the common good regardless of partisan ties.

Name: Donald Robert Sartain

Residence: St. Joseph, Missouri

Party: Democrat

Background: Army veteran and National Guard, lifelong Missourian who has lived in the 6th District since 1980.

Platform: Reduce the national debt, balance the federal budget, institute a progressive tax structure, limit congressional terms.

Name: Jim Higgins

Residence: St. Louis, Missouri

Party: Libertarian

Background: Ohio University; retired civil engineer and systems analyst; candidate for office dating back to the 1990s, most recently for St. Louis County Council in 2019.

Platform: Follows the Libertarian playbook of reducing the size and interference of government and belief that government's primary responsibility is "protecting people from force and fraud."

Read more here:

US House of Representatives Missouri District 6 | News - Southernminn.com

Cyberpunk 2077 Release Date, Gameplay And Everything – Pop Culture Times

Posted on by

- Advertisement -

Cyberpunk 2077 is the most anticipated game of the year; fans are eagerly waiting to play this dystopian game. This game was first scheduled to release in April of this year, but it has pushed back to November of this year.

Cyberpunk 2077 is an upcoming video game on PC, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One. It is a massive dystopian Role Playing Game from CD Projekt. CD Projekt has created The Witcher series too. The buzz around this game is exciting, and the launch is long overdue, but at least its coming, right?

The game was announced in 2012, and a decade minus two years later, we can say its around the corner. Cyberpunk 2077 is releasing on November 19, 2020.

- Advertisement -

The gameplay seems like that of Grand Theft Auto 5 to an extent:

Cyberpunk 2077 is played as V,a mercenary whose voice, face, hairstyles, body type, and clothing are customizable. The game is set in Night City, California, which has six regions. On its outskirts, the Badlands can also be explored. V owns an apartment where he can find weapons, or a change of clothes, or even use a computer. The apartment also has a garage.

- Advertisement -

V can move on foot or in a vehicle. Pedestrians are vulnerable to vehicular collisions. If V commits a crime, law enforcement may be alerted, depending on the location of the crime. Braindance is a device that allows V to experience other peoples experiences. Throughout the game, V is met with various companions. Consumables, like soft drinks, are used for healing. Minigames include hacking, boxing, auto racing, martial arts, and shooting ranges. Game over messages only appear at the point of death.

Cyberpunk 2077 has drawn influence from the film Blade Runner, manga and anime series Ghost in the Shell, and video games System Shock and Deus Ex.

Cyberpunk 2077 was scheduled to release on April 16, 2020, but then it was pushed back to release on September 17, 2020. Now we have a new date for which is November 19, 2020. We can hope that this time-release date will not be pushed back.

The character and the vehicles being used can be viewed in either first-person or third-person, depending on the players customization.

Yes, Trailer is Out.

According to the officials, and Anime is in the process, and it can air on Netflix in the year 2022. Cyberpunk: Edgerunners will be ten episodes long story. This story will be all about a street kid living in Night City.

- Advertisement -

See the original post:

Cyberpunk 2077 Release Date, Gameplay And Everything - Pop Culture Times

How Much YouTube Paid Me For a Video With Over One Million Views – Inc.

Posted on by

Before I begin to break this case study down, here are a few quick disclaimers:

1. As click-baity as this title is, this is not a clickbait article. My plan is to be as transparent as possible to show you how much (or little) creating content on YouTube is worth if you put in the effort, and how to optimize a potential revenue opportunity.

2. There's nothing to buy here. No punch line or call to action at the end. I'm not selling a product. I have (modest) multiple sources of income from businesses I've built, including my work as an active writer, director and producer at my video production company; brand and commercial work for clients; my YouTube channel, and more. Feel free to borrow a page from my playbook if you think it has value.

3. This is nota flex on my net worth. I'm a regular person, living a fairly regular lifestyle in the competitive business landscape of the overpriced Southern California suburbs. I don't have a pair of matching Lamborghinis in my garage, no initials embroidered on my shirts or other clothing, no girls in bikinis dancing around a pool, and I'm not taking exotic vacations in a private jet.

Also, why publish this now? The world is in flux and upheaval; unemployment rates are at an all-time high, in fact double digits worse, compared to the Great Recession. The short answer is because this all feels eerily familiar to a decade-plus-twoyears ago, when I felt so hopeless and afraid in a time of turmoil for my fragile new venture as an independent startup. However, despite the odds against me (and many others who found success), in my experience the greatest opportunities can be found (if we have the courage to seek them out) rising from the ashes of failure and during the hardest times.

I can trace most of my (limited) success to generosity, humility and tenacity--with an emphasis on the latter. If you haven't heard yet: There's no Prince Charming in this story. There are no rescue boats. No one is coming to save you. It's up to you to save yourself. Maybe harnessing your particular expertise and IP into a side hustle via YouTube might become a valuable thing. At least that's the way I see it.

I left a big job at a major Hollywood studio in 2007 to pursue my dream of building my own company. Arguably, I started from scratch at the worst possible time in history, although 2020 might go undefeated in the history books. I've had my share of "sand kicked in my face," given my blood, sweat and tears for the last decade and now I'm thriving. But the rent is still due every day. I love what I do and I'm grateful I get to do it.

4. I'm not a Youtube "guru"and the thought of having a self-proclaimed title makes me want to throw up. I'm a student of the platform with some level of expertise who is also working in the space with brand clients. I'm probably a lot like you--or similar to other people who are married with four children and trying to make ends meet and grow my own business to a place where I have more financial freedom.

Now that we have that out of the way, let's get into it.

I'm not the first person to document this kind of case study. I can think of a few other YouTubers who have made videos like this: David Dobrik, Mr. Beast and Graham Stephan come to mind. But I'm very different from these guys in many ways and my channel is between .01 and10 percent of the size. I thought it would be interesting and possibly valuable, especially to those thinking about getting started, to give a behind-the-scenes look of someone who has a "business" channel with only a little over 100,000 subscribers,instead of millions or tens of millions like the aforementioned.

Whether you're serious about starting something new, growing your existing YouTube channel or just curious about what's possible, I'm going to share the secrets of what I've learned over the last few years. Keep in mind, similar to just about any kind of professional advice, your mileage may vary. That said, these tips have been personally tried and tested as well as documented by YouTube corporate and other experts.

So what's your guess? How much do you think YouTube paid me for a video with 1 million-plus views? But wait! Before you throw out a number, subtract 40 percent to account for the revenue split with YouTube. Google has to get paid too! Now, what's your best guess on the paycheck I got for a video that went viral?

Side note: As annoyingly superficial as the term "influencer" is, one of the perks or leverage of vanity metrics (like a viral video) is that you might be able to use this social proof to work more with brands and the media. For those with real influence, this can be another big opportunity to monetize, but I'll save this topic for separate article.

The moment you've been waiting for...then some explanation and details below:

You are looking at (graphic below) the back end Dashboard view of my YouTube channel analytics page. The estimated revenue is the net take-home amount I was paid (receiving 60 percent of the money) after an approximate 60/40 revenue split with YouTube.

Yep, you're reading this correctly. By the time you see this article I've probably been paid over $20,000 (net), with an average CPM of $18.61. In other words, this video generated about $32,307 in gross ad revenue. I've received $19,453.75 to date and YouTube got $12,853. And this video continues to garner views and earn money while I sleep. In perpetuity. I'm very happy with the results, but they didn't happen overnight. In fact, this video was basically dead for 12 months until I resurrected it with a few key adjustments on the back end.

High(er) CPMs are where it's at. Assuming you've met the basic threshold of 1,000 subscribers and 4,000 cumulative watch hours, you can apply for the YouTube Partner Program and begin monetizing your videos. Once you flip the switch, you'll start seeing a full host of analytics including Reach (with CTR for click thru rate), Engagement and Watch time (a very important metric showing how much time is spent watching each video), Audience (who's watching, on what device, and from where) and more.

In the Revenue tab you'll see CPM (cost per mille) or "Cost Per Thousand," whichis a metric commonly used in advertising. It's basically the cost an advertiser pays for 1,000 ads to run on YouTube. YouTube also recently introduced a metric called RPM (Revenue Per Thousand) which is a more accurate measure of the true net metric after the revenue share.

"RPM is a simple metric that compares your total revenue against your views. It's calculated by multiplying all your revenue reported in YouTube Analytics (including ads, YouTube Premium, Channel Memberships and Super Chat and Super Stickers) by 1,000, and then dividing it by total views in the same time period."

Take a closer look at the timeline. When I first uploaded this video episode with author Mel Robbins in May of 2018, I knew it was great, but it actually statically flopped. Nobody watched it and I was really disappointed. To make matters worse, I was also sweating the underperformance because I asked my sponsor partner, AKA Hotel Residences, for a favor to let me film in their Beverly Hills penthouse suite in exchange for a shoutout in the video description.

No views was really bad news, so I asked AKA to be patient with me and keep the faith. I scrutinized the analytics to try and find the reason for failure but I didn't find anything unusual or telling. All I could do was to start a series of experiments.

The first thing I looked at was Categories. If you have a YouTube channel, go to Your Channel/Settings/Upload Defaults/Advanced Settings and you will see a drop-down menu to choose one of 15 categories for your video.

This list was not intuitive to me. At first, I didn't give much thought to it and rolled forward with the default People & Blogs, because I didn't know any better. Surprisingly, there is no option for Business videos on YouTube, which describes my channel best. After months of no improvement and desperate for results, I decided to change things up and switched Mel's video episode to Entertainment. This seemed logical since I think my videos are mildly entertaining and they are part of what I call a "show" and "web series."

What happened next was also unexpected:

What I believe happened after making the change (again) is that I further confused the YouTube algorithm. It seems like I was thrown into the deep end of Entertainment with huge channels, massive competition and even lower CPMs. Twelvemonths had passed since I first uploaded the original video and stats went from bad to worse.

The screen shot above is from Mr. Beast's channel with nearly 40 million subscribers taken from Social Blade. SB is a website that "gives all users access to a public database which, using advanced technology, is able to provide you with global analytics for any content creator, live streamer, or brand."

Side note: Social Blade currently has my channel Behind the Brand ranked with a B- grade. I guess it's fair based on the fact that there's a lot of room for improvement.

In my observation, Entertainment channels tend to get higher views but generally lower CPMs between $2 and $4. From my previous career experience in brand marketing on the client side, this makes sense. Advertisers are willing to pay higher CPMs for higher quality and affluent audiences.

My guess is that Mr. Beast's core demographic is between 10 and 22 years of age. While this group probably consumes more content, it likely has a much lower disposable income (and value to advertisers) compared to my core of business professionals. Mr. Beast's videos are juvenile and simple, but entertaining, with sensational pranks and outrageous social experiments. His videos earn less per view, but regularly collect 10 million views each. Uploading consistently onceper week allows him to rake in massive amounts of cash and my prediction is that Mr. Beast will become the first YouTube billionaire. Way to go Jimmy!

When I changed my video Category (to Education), CPMs continued to improve.

The screen shot above is from the last seven days of the Mel Robbins video and you can see that the CPM has increased from approx. $18 to nearly $34. The early progress I saw in 2019 with Mel prompted me to change all 600-plus videos on my channel to the Education category. It is probably responsible for a 10x increase in overall channel revenue. My videos get fewer views compared to the bigger channels but I noticed the pre-roll ads started attracting better brands like Mercedes Benz and Turbo Tax and my CPMs shot up to $15-$40.

I have continued to work on Mel's video and hundreds of others with a focus on titles, tags, thumbnail, and description to make sure the algorithm understands my content and serves it to the best audience.

Over the last few years I've been working with a handful of bigger brands and a few celebrity clients to grow their audience on YouTube. Here's a quick look at what I did for Kevin O'Leary's channel.

Without sharing too much, I can tell you that Kevin's channel was completely dead when I started on it in June of last year. He had a few thousand subs with old videos from 6 to 8 years ago that looked totally outdated and were gathering cobwebs.

If you know Kevin from ABC's hit TV show Shark Tank you know that he is ruthless and loves money. I was shocked to find out that Kevin had not monetized his channel. It was time for a total reboot.

We got to work and set everything up for him. We created a series based on his niche and started making original video content that his audience wanted.

Here's a bit of my strategy: Since Kevin (a.k.a. Mr. Wonderful) is widely known as the prickly royalty deal king without feelings on TV, we decided to show people on Youtube the other sides of Kevin. For example, did you know Kevin is a foodie and classically trained chef? He's also a rare-watch connoisseur, fashionista, guitar collector and musician who writes and plays music, and who is obviously very knowledgable about business and finance.

Note: this is not an ad for Kevin's channel and I'm not being compensated in any way to write for him. I'm sharing my strategy so that you can take a page from my playbook and maybe use this model for yourself. You don't have to be rich and famous like Kevin to do well on YouTube.

In my experience I look for fivethings:

That's it for now! What else would you like to know? Leave me a comment and I'll consider doing a follow-up post or writing about a new topic. I wish you much success and encourage you to consider starting a YouTube channel. In my experience the opportunities are big and the possibilities are endless.

Read the original here:

How Much YouTube Paid Me For a Video With Over One Million Views - Inc.

The Kid LAROI is already a big deal. But the best is yet to come – ABC News

Posted on by

The Kid LAROI cannot be stopped.

Every track he puts his name to gets millions of streams. Hes achieved TikTok infamy and rubbed shoulders with Drake. One of Australias biggest rap exports, he now lives in L.A., with a rap sheet that most kids dream of. And hes managed it all at just 16 years old.

Ever since meeting LAROI in 2018, when he was 14 with a dream and a finalist for Unearthed High, hes seemed destined for bigger things. Even now, with his first full-length release F*CK LOVE, you get the impression hes already thinking about the next milestone on the horizon.

F*CK LOVE is billed as a mixtape, but its good enough to be a debut album.

The production is top-shelf, the hooks are sharp, the guests are flashy. His vocal delivery has improved, too, sounding as commanding through AutoTuned crooning as he does dropping raw bars.

Six months ago, I didnt even know this project was going to be a thing. I only decided two or three months ago it was going to be a full official [release] and I started piecing the songs together LAROI revealed to triple js Richard Kingsmill.

Clocking in at a concise half-hour, the mixtape is filled with the kind of chart-ready melodic emo-rap that Lil Uzi Vert or Post Malone would be proud of. Trap beats anchor clouds of pealing piano and delicate guitar plucks. Its very much operating in the same musical atmosphere as LAROIs late mentor and friend, Juice WRLD.

FireFox NVDA users - To access the following content, press 'M' to enter the iFrame.

In fact, Juice presides over the projects centrepiece, the one-two of GO and TELL ME WHY. The former is a collab featuring The Kids big bro, the latter is a heartbreaking ode to the gone-too-soon rapper.

Already doing titanic numbers (54 million streams and counting), the pairing is destined to be F*CK LOVEs most talked-about moment, but its also its most significant.

Combined, the transition from GO into TELL ME WHY feels like the passing of the torch from one star to the next. From Juice, now immortalised with the biggest posthumous album in 20 years, to The Kid LAROI, whos seized every opportunity thats come his way.

FireFox NVDA users - To access the following content, press 'M' to enter the iFrame.

Freestyling since the age of 9, LAROI real name Charlton Howard has First Nations heritage and was partly raised in Broken Hill before moving with his family to South Sydney. He was just 13 when he first hit a studio and began uploading tracks to Unearthed and Soundcloud.

Travelling from Redfern to Glebe to attend school four days a week, he juggled studies with spots at triple js One Night Stand and Listen Out festival, and studio time with B Wise and Manu Crooks.

Chicago music mogul Lil Bibby spotted LAROIs talent early on and quickly signed him to his label, Grade A Productions, alongside Juice WRLD. Bibby had the young gun open for Juices Australian tour in November, which turned out to be his final shows before he tragically died age 21.

Its still weird to think about that, LAROI told Kingsmill. Its still fresh on everyones mind. I would hope that Im making him proud and everyone down here loves and misses him still. Its still pretty unreal.

When the 16-year-old first relocated to Los Angeles, he lived with Juice WRLD and his entourage for three months before his mother and little brother could make the trip over. It was essentially a musical apprenticeship.

He would be in the studio obviously every day recording f**king a million songs, and I would go in there and just watch him and watch how he was doing shit, LAROI recently told Zane Lowe on Beats 1.

Though he clearly has one foot firmly planted in the American market, he hasnt abandoned his roots.

F*CK LOVE has beats from Grammy-nominated Sydney producer Khaled Rohaim and long-time collaborator Haan.

Brisbane artist JOY. sings and produces on the closing track SELFISH, and a mural by famed street artist Scottie Marsh has popped up in Waterloo, where LAROI used to kick it before moving Stateside.

FireFox NVDA users - To access the following content, press 'M' to enter the iFrame.

Unlike your average mixtape, F*CK LOVE has a strong narrative arc, documenting the hurt, heartache, and resolution of a disintegrating romance. The story kicks off in dramatic fashion, with a groggy LAROI waking up to his ex yelling down the phone at him on BOOTY CALL - the first of four skits that frame the release.

Its from a real conversation I had with a girl, LAROI told Kingsmill. I had her on speakerphone. My friend was in the room and thought itd be funny and pull out his phone and start recording her yelling at me. Afterwards we were listening to it back and I was like Oh my god, this needs to start the project!

Of course, it was kind of weird getting her consent to be on the record. I told her, Look, if youre comfortable Id like you to record some more. Thats how the other three skits came about Luckily, she said yes. Shout-outs to her.

She mightve agreed because The Kid LAROI makes himself the villain in the relationship as much as her, bringing depth to an otherwise simple, well-trodden tale of love lost. In the Drake-shaded SAME THING, he criticises his partner for lying, cheating, and playing games with him, before acknowledging hes not perfect either. I cant be mad, I do the same thing, he sings.

FireFox NVDA users - To access the following content, press 'M' to enter the iFrame.

He runs the spectrum from anger and confusion - on earlier tracks like MAYBE and the hazy RnB of NOT FAIR to the regret and self-reflection of NEED YOU MOST and RUNNING (back to you).

Its like the saying You dont know what you got til its gone. You miss something more when you dont have it, LAROI explained. Im still learning Im super-young. I dont have a lot of time to be thinking about love.

How does a 16-year-old up-and-comer even have time to commit to romance? He doesnt. And thats what makes the anguish and turbulence at the centre of these songs authentic.

He might differ sonically, but like fellow prodigies Billie Eilish, Ruel, and Lorde before him, a big part of The Kid LAROIs appeal is how he expresses teenage angst with an emotional maturity beyond his years. He may not be able to legally vote or go to a bar, but he can convince you with his howls and tremors that the hurt and confusion hes feeling is genuine.

FireFox NVDA users - To access the following content, press 'M' to enter the iFrame.

Hes never gone deep into detail about it, but The Kid LAROI had a tough upbringing, including his uncles passing and being homeless for a time.

Its been an interesting life. I feel like Im 40 years old at the age of 16, he told Kingsmill. But he feels grateful for his success, hustling hard to get to where he is now.

Me and my manager were talking about this He said Could you imagine if this didnt happen, where youd be? I cannot even imagine what wouldve happened by now. It feels like everything worked out how it shouldve worked out.

Thats an understatement. LAROI has swung for nothing less than the same ball park as the biggest heavy-hitters in the emo-rap game, and F*CK LOVE marks the point hes officially graduated from the ranks of rookie to pro.

Its probably no surprise hes released a mixtape of tortured songs about failing relationships, because romance - like everything in his life so far has taken a backseat as he ambitiously drives towards achieving his musical goals.

Anybody wherever Ive ever been in my life, one thing they can always say good or bad, I was always doing music and I always wanted to be a rapper, he said.

There were times where I thought, Damn, what if this doesnt work out? This seems really out of reach. I dont know if this is going to be possible. But its sticking to it. I guess its fate or whatever. Fate mixed with hard work and dedication, obviously, it didnt just fall in place.

What if youd shown the LAROI of three years ago all hed achieved now. Would he have believed it?

Yes and no I wouldve believed Id still be doing music, whether I was successful or not, he replied. But in terms of how quick everythings been moving and all the success? I definitely would not believe it.

But I definitely thought I was going to be a little further, he added, showing just how ambitious he truly is. With a debut album already in the works right now, LAROI is clearly in it for the long game. Cant stop. Wont stop.

F*CK LOVE is out now via Sony Music Australia.

See the article here:

The Kid LAROI is already a big deal. But the best is yet to come - ABC News

Spokane is Reading, Eric Andre gets weird, Night Call and more! – Pacific Northwest Inlander

Posted on by

DIVERSE VOICESLocal community reading initiative Spokane is Reading is on hiatus for 2020 and encouraging readers instead to set out on an independently guided path of enlightenment via cultural awareness and anti-racism. A partnership of the Spokane County Library District, Spokane Public Library and Auntie's Bookstore, Spokane is Reading has published a recommended reading list featuring an acclaimed lineup of BIPOC authors, including Tommy Orange's There, There, Roxanne Gay's Hunger, Ta-Nehisi Coates' Between the World and Me, and many others. Find the list at spokaneisreading.org. (CHEY SCOTT)

ERIC DOES THE BIG EASYIf you're unfamiliar with him, I might suggest getting a little, uh, taste from The Eric Andre Show before you dive into the comedian's new batshit-insane Netflix special: Eric Andre: Legalize Everything, performed in the cozy confines of the New Orleans House of Blues. Expect larynx-shredding, off-the-wall, high-energy deliveries on everything from prostitution to the war on drugs to American Puritanism. And perhaps it wouldn't be right without a few props thrown into his set. It's gonna get weird. (QUINN WELSCH)

RADICAL IDEOLOGYIf you've ever wondered how someone can go from being only passively interested in politics to dying on the hill of a fringe movement, you may want to check out the New York Times podcast Rabbit Hole. A fascinating and horrifying dissection of online radicalism, the show illustrates how so many 20-somethings have become indoctrinated into alt-right ideologies, why the conspiracy theories of QAnon appeal to mostly older people, and how YouTube's recommendation algorithm unwittingly pulls users into videos espousing extreme politics. There are only six episodes, so you can easily binge the entire series in an afternoon. (NATHAN WEINBENDER)

CABBIE CONFESSIONALSWho better to listen to late-night confessionals than a cab driver? In the video game noir Night Call, that's you: A cabbie in the City of Lights, except this story is pretty dark. You're a recent victim of a serial killer still on the loose, but somehow you survived. The authorities want to pin the blame on you. You must investigate. Talk to witnesses and suspects, but don't forget to pick up customers to pay your bills and keep your gas tank full. Driving around Paris in the wee hours is all automated. The player just has to choose the responses to the conversations. And remember, sometimes the best choice is no response at all. Available on Microsoft GamePass, PS4 and Switch. (QUINN WELSCH)

THIS WEEK'S PLAYLIST

ALANIS MORISSETTE, Such Pretty Forks in the Road. The 'rona put the kibosh on a 25th anniversary tour for Jagged Little Pill, but a new batch of songs will do.

PSYCHEDELIC FURS, Made of Rain. Their first album in 29 years(!), and the songs I've heard fit right in with the good ol' days.

FONTAINES D.C., A Hero's Death. Their 2019 debut Dogrelwas one of the year's best. Can the Irish rockers follow it up with the same insistent energy? (DAN NAILEN)

Read more here:

Spokane is Reading, Eric Andre gets weird, Night Call and more! - Pacific Northwest Inlander

Yeah, Antifa in Richmond Is Real. Even the Mayor Admits It. – Bacon’s Rebellion

Posted on by

by James A. Bacon

Conservatives have been mocked for suggesting that Antifa members have numbered among protesters roiling Virginia the past two months, but yesterday Richmond Police Chief Gerald Smith, with Mayor Levar Stoney at his side, said the police believe that Antifa and individuals influenced by Antifa participated in the predominantly white mob action that led to vandalism, arson and assaults on police Saturday.

To be sure, Stoney contended that white supremacist boogaloo boys were spearheading the event with the intent of discrediting peaceful protesters, according to this Blue Virginia summary. But he did not contradict Smiths assessment that Antifa was involved.

Smith said he believes that the flyer promoting the demonstration (displayed above) originated from outside the Richmond region, as did some of the protesters arrested during the mayhem. Richmond police are conducting an investigation into the origins of the event.

Stoneys reaction to the event is interesting in two ways.

First, the effort to blame boogaloo boys for the violence is pathetic. Even if extreme right wingers did organize the event several armed individuals in Hawaiian shirts, a trademark of the boogaloos, were reportedly seen in the crowd they accounted for only a tiny percentage of the participants and, more importantly, the people joining them thought of themselves as left-wing anti-fascists.

The second interesting angle here is that the demonstration was comprised mainly of white militants. Indeed, Smith thanked Black Lives Matter for sharing the flyer and not participating in the event. News reports from other parts of the country indicate that leaders of Black Lives Matter are increasingly concerned that white militants are hijacking the protest movement.

Stoney denounced Saturday nights violence in no uncertain terms, saying that it was disgusting, that it takes us backwards and that it was unacceptable in the city of Richmond.

Its good to know that Stoney is taking a strong stand against white violence. Id have more respect from if he had done something to protect Councilwoman Kim Gray, who is running against him for Richmond Mayor, when a predominantly black mob held a threatening demonstration at her house a couple of weeks back. (See previous post.) Gray says that, though Richmond police monitored the demonstration, they never showed up at her house. But if the mayor is willing to take a hard line against nihilistic white punks sowing mayhem, thats at least something.

Related

Originally posted here:

Yeah, Antifa in Richmond Is Real. Even the Mayor Admits It. - Bacon's Rebellion

Misogyny, Murder and the Men’s Rights Movement – Ms. Magazine

Posted on by

The irony of a mens rights activist murdering two men to get back at feminists goes to show, no one is safe from violent misogyny, writes Baker. Toxic masculinity kills. (Mathias Wasik/ Flickr)

On Sunday afternoon, July 19, a white, anti-feminist mens rights activist and lawyer Roy Den Hollander dressed up in a FedEx uniform and went to the house of New Jersey federal judge Esther Salasthe first Latina appointed to be a federal judge in New Jersey. Judge Salas had presided over a case brought by Hollander, challenging the U.S. governments male-only military draft registration requirement.

When the door opened, Hollander shot Judge Salass 20-year-old son dead and seriously wounded her husband, then fled. Judge Salas was in the basement at the time.

Hollander was later found dead about two hours north of Judge Salass home in an apparent suicide.

The 72-year-old Ivy League-educated, former New York corporate lawyer had been a member of the San Diego-based mens rights organizationthe National Coalition for Men. He had for years filed lawsuits alleging gender discrimination against men. He challenged the constitutionality of ladies night promotions at bars and nightclubs, sued Columbia University for its womens studies classes, and sued news organizations over what he said was biased coverage against Trump during the 2016 election.

In 2008, he filed a suit against the federal government, alleging the Violence Against Women Act was unconstitutionally biased against men.

Hollander reportedly carried around a typed, 41-point list headed Discrimination against men in America. He complained feminists had infiltrated institutions, and theres been a transfer of rights from guys to girls.

In a 2018 ruling, Judge Salas allowed Hollanders case to go forward, but he criticized her for not moving the case along quickly enough. He called her a lazy and incompetent Latina judge appointed by Obama.

This man seems to have been especially unbalanced, but the incident nonetheless offers a tragic illustration of how violence lurks very close to the surface for some of these men, pro-feminist scholar and educator Jackson Katz told Ms.

It is directly related to how violence is used by abusive men in heterosexual relationships with women. It is a very effective means of gaining compliance: If I cant get my way by any other means, Im going to get it through the threat of violence or the actual enactment of violence.

Here atMs., our team is continuing to report throughthis global health crisisdoing what we can to keep you informed andup-to-date on some of the most underreported issues of thispandemic.Weask that you consider supporting our work to bring you substantive, uniquereportingwe cant do it without you. Support our independent reporting and truth-telling for as little as $5 per month.

Hollander follows in a long line of anti-feminist men who commit murder, such as Marc Lpine and Elliot Rodger. In his 1989 Montreal massacre, Lpine shot 30 rounds of ammunition into a group of female students at an engineering school in Montreal, while yelling, Youre all feminists!

In 2014, Elliot Rodger killed six people and injured 14 others in Isla Vista, Calif., after distributing a 141-page document describing his deep-rooted loathing of women. Like Hollander, Lpine and Rodger both killed themselves after murdering others.

And just as mass shooters often have histories of domestic violence, so did Hollander. His former wife accused him of abuse and harassment, including revenge porn. In 2001, she filed a New York domestic incident report, alleging that he violated a protective order by stealing her diary and posting it on the internet along with nude photos. He stalked her and doxxed her for years.

Hollander, who was a Trump supporter and volunteer, posted a 2,028-page collection of writings on his website containing deeply misogynist and racist rants about women, whom he called feminazis. He characterized feminists as an evil that wants to exercise totalitarian power over men. He said men have a right to revolt against that tyranny, to take it down. He also threatened that Feminists should be careful in their meddling with nature. There are 300 million firearms in this country, and most of them are owned by guys.

Just as Lpine left a list of nineteen names of radical feminists he would have killed but for lack of time, police found in Hollanders car the names of other female judges he may have planned to target, including New York States chief judge Janet M. DiFiore.

Hollander was part of the anti-feminist mens rights movement, which advocates for a male supremacist ideology the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) describes as a thinly veiled desire for the domination of women and a conviction that the current system oppresses men in favor of women.

A Voice for Men is the largest and most influential mens rights organization. Hollander published on their website. But the movement has many branches, including:

The 60,000-plus member online community called the Red Pill uses a metaphor from The Matrix to refer to the moment one comes to believe that men are oppressed. Most mens rights activists are white, middle-class, heterosexual men.

While there is often hostility among the different subgroups, SPLC reports the unifying thread is virulent, at times violent misogyny, and the practice of blaming women and a large feminist conspiracy for the ills of (mostly white) men today.

Male supremacist ideology is driven by the belief that men are entitled to a superior place in society than women, which are biologically and intellectually inferioras a result, any advancement that women might have obtained is nothing more than a usurpation. Like white supremacy, male supremacy is driven by fear and anger at the loss of white male status.

This misogyny is often interlaced with implicit or explicit threats of violence.

Violence is a critical part of that ideology, says Katz. If I cant get what I want through persuasion, I will use violence, or the implicit threat of violence of it. Even if a man doesnt use violence, the threat of violence hangs in the air as the ultimate way to get what he wants.

Many mens rights activists have an aggrieved entitlement that they use to justify misogyny and violence, says sociologist Michael Kimmel, author of Angry White Men: If you feel entitled and you have not gotten what you expected, that is a recipe for humiliation.

When they see women around them who have succeeded when they havent, they blame women for their failures, feel aggrieved, and use violence, or the threat of violence, to get back at them.

If you grow up with the expectation that the world should be organized in your favor, says Katz, and theres a deep cultural belief in a natural hierarchy with white men residing at the top of that hierarchy, and youre growing up from the earliest moments of your life being taught that, and then seeing it slip away, then theres a real feeling that something is being taken away. Even though objectively they didnt deserve it in the first place, thats not their lived experiencethats not their subjective emotional experience.

Anti-feminist mens rights activists often attack efforts to address violence against women, as Hollander did in his lawsuit challenging the Violence Against Womens Act, inaccurately contending that women engage in intimate partner violence against men as often or more than men do against women.

In her book Equality with a Vengeance: Mens Rights Groups, Battered Women, and Antifeminist Backlash, scholar Molly Dragiewicz argues antifeminist mens groups use the language of gender neutrality to attack programs created to ameliorate the outcomes of gendered inequality. These discourses proclaiming sex symmetry in violence against intimates serve to reproduce the conditions that enable violence by silencing those most adversely affected, obscuring structural contributing factors, and echoing abusers.

According to SPLC, the most established proponents are the virulently misogynistic website A Voice for Men, started by Paul Elam (male spelled backwards), and the Return of Kings, founded by pick-up artist Roosh V. The SPLC designates both as hate groups and describes male supremacist ideology as the gateway drug for the racist alt-right.

Australian scholar Michael Flood maintains a comprehensive website of scholarship about mens rights movement, including resources on the links between anti-feminist mens rights activists and the alt-right.

Hollander, who was 72 and had a fatal cancer diagnosis, may have felt he had nothing to lose. In addition to the murder of Judge Salass son, Hollander is also the top suspect in the murder of a rival mens rights activistlawyer Marc Angelucci, the vice president of the group National Coalition for Men. On July 11, a man posing as a FedEx delivery person shot Angelucci to death at his home in California. Investigators suspect that Hollander may have been jealous of Angelucci, who won a military draft case before Hollander could win his case before Judge Salas.

Mens rights activists are now trying to distance themselves from Hollander, claiming he is not one of them. But his long-term involvement in their movement, past membership in one of their leading organizations, and use of their ideology and rhetoric proves them wrong.

The irony of a mens rights activist murdering two men to get back at feminists goes to show, no one is safe from violent misogyny. Toxic masculinity kills. Male supremacist ideology and behavior, which often intersects with white supremacy as in the case of Hollanders racist misogyny toward Judge Salas, have been tolerated for far too long in American society.

Whether in the streets or in our homes, in front of womens reproductive health clinics or in the halls of government, whether online or in person, we must finally start taking misogyny seriously, in word and in deed.

The coronavirus pandemic and the response by federal, state and local authorities is fast-moving.During this time,Ms. is keeping a focus on aspects of the crisisespecially as it impacts women and their familiesoften not reported by mainstream media.If you found this article helpful,please consider supporting our independent reporting and truth-telling for as little as $5 per month.

See the original post:

Misogyny, Murder and the Men's Rights Movement - Ms. Magazine

Confessions of a jaded NZ bookseller – The Spinoff

Posted on by

We cant tell you who wrote this piece, or where they work. What we can tell you is its not Unity.

A little while ago, I said to a friend that working at a bookshop kind of sucks. He was clearly bamboozled. I thought working at a bookshop would be lovely and magical. Being surrounded by books, reading all day

I used to think so, too.

When I got my first job as a bookseller, at 16 years old, I was thrilled. I had wanted to work at my local bookshop since I was a child I hero-worshipped and crushed on the staff, was entranced by the shelves and the papery smell, and spent hours reading in the kids room while my Mum and Dad had coffee next door (note to parents: if your children are gremlins, this is not good practice).

I loved cutting up the Christmas wrapping paper and recommending childrens books to parents. I happily gave up half my weekend to be there, making friends Ive kept ever since. Through the bookshop Ive become more confident, met countless lovely customers, been introduced to excellent and thought-provoking books, and experienced the way that communities continue to support an industry that would otherwise disappear.

But after 10 years as a part-time bookseller, Im jaded. Ive become someone who frequently loathes other people. And this isnt just me being an asshole.

Lately, grumpy booksellers have been going public. Last year Anne Barnetson, a bookseller in Perth, started posting her comic series Customer Service Wolf to Tumblr and Instagram. She told the BBC Its unenacted fantasies that I think people have after a very long day when they think: It would just be great to stop all this right now.'

There have been books, of course: London bookseller Jen Campbell released Weird Things Customers Say in Bookstores in 2012; five years later Scottish secondhand bookstore owner Shaun Bhythell put out what Russell Baillie described in the Listener as a funny, pithy, grumpy poignant memoir of a year in the shops life and its occasionally annoying clientele.

And, at the serious end of the spectrum, Sadie Stein, contributing editor for The Paris Review, opened a 2016 column with I love bookstores, but theres something that needs to be said: theyre often filled with lurking creeps.

All retailers know that just one unpleasant interaction someone who doesnt treat you as a real human, basically can ruin your day. These customers come in various forms: the creepy men, the entitled, the children-with-icecreams, the bigots, the (many) people who are outraged that we dont have a particular title, despite Covid-19 playing havoc with supply chains (NB: please call ahead!). Crucially, unlike most retail jobs, customers of bookshops want to discuss ideas, and that can lead to uncomfortable, sticky situations.

Plus, I now know that part of the bookshop smell is a carpet that has absorbed urine both canine and toddler so a bit of the olfactory charm has gone, too.

Probably weeing. (Photo: Martin Barraud/Getty)

The reality: working in a bookshop is sometimes a bit shit, more Black Books than Notting Hill. Let me list the ways.

When the customer is wrong

A woman once said to my manager, Do you have 20 Rules for Life?

Do you mean Jordan Petersons 12 Rules for Life? she asked.

Haughty look. No. Its 20 Rules.

My manager picked up a copy of the book, 12 Rules for Life. This one?

Well, thats the right author. But no. Im certain its 20 Rules. Ill call my son and get this sorted out.

When the customer is wrong and also racist

The number of times Ive had someone tell me I dont like Asian writers would be ridiculous and absurd if it wasnt so offensive. Generally, I assume such customers have read one Murakami novel and believe that hes It.

An incident that really sticks with me is when an older woman asked for a book recommendation, and I suggested A Little Life by Hanya Yanagihara a Man Booker finalist, incredible, brutal, and one of my favourites. Recommending a book like this, which left me devastated and still has the power to choke me up, feels like extending an (emotionally laden) olive branch. Youre trying to share an experience that moved you, so its hard not to feel a bit miffed when you gush over something amazing and then the customer buys Jojo Moyes. But this time, the customer stopped me before I finished saying Its about four men

Oh no, she said. I dont read Asian authors.

A pause.

Hanya Yanagihara is American, I said. The book is set in New York.

Then whats with her name?

Long exhale through the nose. Her parents are from Hawaii.

She scrunched up her face and said no thank you and at that point I just had to walk away, leaving her to browse all the novels by men called John or Robert and women called Ann. How, I thought, did people still think these things, let alone say them aloud in public? Is it because people like me just walk away, rather than telling them it isnt right?

Its hard, though, to say what you think when youre in customer service. Even in a regular social situation my conflict-averse nature would make it difficult, but when a large part of your job is to ensure that your shop keeps getting five-star Google reviews and receiving happy paying customers, biting your tongue can feel like the only option, even when on the inside youre spitting nails.

When the customer is a creep

Sometimes, behaving like its all OK and putting on a pleasant face can really cause trouble. On and off for five years, from when I was 19, a middle-aged man stalked me in the shop. He would come in when I was on my own at night, tell me hed broken up with his girlfriend because he liked me better, call the shop repeatedly to ask me to coffee, say hed recently watched Fifty Shades of Grey and that Anastasia reminded him of me because, of course, shes so clever.

Anastasia Steele (as played by Dakota Johnson): really not renowned for her smarts. (Photo: Supplied)

At the start, I partly blamed myself for getting into this situation. Hadnt I chatted cheerfully with him? Hadnt I smiled? Hadnt I wryly told him that Fifty Shades of Grey is not great literature?

But of course this wasnt my fault. I was in customer service mode. I was being nice and accommodating because thats what youre expected to do, both as a customer service worker and as a woman. You get used to saying Yes, of course, and Oh, how interesting. Plus, I literally couldnt leave when he talked to me. The furthest away I could get was behind the till.

What most customers understand is that customer service workers are fakers. Sure, sometimes were happy, sometimes we even enjoy the chatting but its also our job, so generally it shouldnt be taken to heart. But some men oh, they take it to heart, and they keep it buried deep in their aorta, even when two years have passed and you duck upstairs whenever they walk through the door.

Our health and safety plan in a situation like that is to send a Facebook message saying CALL THE SHOP! to the work groupchat, wait for a colleague to ring, then pretend the friend on the phone is an annoying customer who might take hours to deal with, hoping that the actual annoying/unstable/stalker customer will get disheartened and decide to leave.

This is not totally reassuring, however, when youre alone with a man who is wearing a mesh singlet and covered in swastika tattoos.

When whats selling is extremely weird

Cultural trends are reflected in what people buy. In 2016, for example, we sold what felt like billions of adult colouring books. Obviously, that year everyone was stressed as hell and very susceptible to suggestion. After Christmas, the colouring books left and never came back, a weird blip in the book universe.

Over the past few months, since the police killing of George Floyd and the political protests and riots that followed, the trend has been to buy books that confront and oppose racism. How to be an Anti-Racist, Me and White Supremacy, So You Want to Talk About Race, White Fragility, and books by James Baldwin, Ta-Nehisi Coates, Michelle Alexander and others have been hugely in demand we keep ordering them in, there are stacks put away as special customer orders, and yet there are never enough copies on the shelves.

Black Lives Matter March For Solidarity in Auckland on June 1, 2020 (Photo: Jihee Junn)

The buying habits at our bookshop are just a microcosm of whats going on in the world. In early June, both the New York Times list of bestselling non-fiction and Amazons bestsellers list were suddenly dominated by books addressing racism.

In the UK, Reni Eddo-Lodge (Why Im No Longer Talking to White People About Race) and Bernardine Evaristo (Girl, Woman, Other) became the first black British women to top the countrys non-fiction and fiction charts, respectively.

Its refreshing to see these changes, despite how late theyve come, despite the incredible discomfort, articulated by Reni Eddo-Lodge, that it took the killing of an innocent black man to drive such widespread interest and care. Still, when I see people lining up to buy these titles, it feels considerably better than when the queue was for Lost Ocean: An Inky Adventure & Colouring Book.

When it all gets too much

Books are vehicles for ideas, ideology, and politics, even when that wasnt the authors intent (think of when Ted Dawes Into the River was banned, or the recent controversy surrounding American Dirt).

While bookshops are generally politically neutral spaces, in which Richard Dawkins is equally as welcome as Eckhart Tolle, there are times when both booksellers and customers dont see it that way.

A customer I remember well came into the shop one night and turned John Keys biography face-down on the table before leaving in a hurry. She then emailed the shop to say that she found it both distasteful and mystifying that a small business like ours would propagate such a book. We replied that we didnt push a political agenda, that our staff hold a variety of viewpoints (although, really, were mainly a bunch of lefties). End of discussion.

Possibly not an accidental juxtaposition. Kim Dotcom tweeted this in 2014, commenting in fine company (Photo: Twitter)

Really, though, were not always neutral and agenda-less. Nearly half of my colleagues studied politics, were in the book world because we enjoy discussing ideas, and were low-wage earners of course we have views, not only about the world, but about the books we sell. On occasion, thats led to some perhaps less-than-ethical behaviour.

Jordan Petersons self-help book 12 (not 20) Rules for Life is a good example. After becoming well-known for his views on free speech and gender-neutral pronouns, Peterson was adopted as a mascot of the alt-right. Boxes upon boxes of his books arrived in our shop, and most staff werent thrilled.

So after selling dozens of copies to both Peterson fans and people simply intrigued by the title, a few of my colleagues had had enough and ended up hiding Petersons books in a cupboard behind the till. Well sell them if someone asks, they said, but were not going to advertise them on the shop floor.

Surely it isnt the place of booksellers to censor or interfere in consumer trends, is it? But, equally, were human, were political beings rather than customer service robots. And sometimes, we snap.

More:

Confessions of a jaded NZ bookseller - The Spinoff

The Brexiteers behind the ‘Defund the BBC’ campaign – The New European

Posted on by

PUBLISHED: 12:31 30 July 2020 | UPDATED: 09:27 31 July 2020

Steve Anglesey

STEVE ANGLESEY considers whether the Brexiteers latest fight with the corporation is an attempt at revenge over what they see as Remain bias.

Email this article to a friend

To send a link to this page you must be logged in.

Become a Supporter

Almost four years after its creation The New European goes from strength to strength across print and online, offering a pro-European perspective on Brexit and reporting on the political response to the coronavirus outbreak, climate change and international politics. But we can only continue to grow with your support.

If you liked Brexit, youre going to love its sequels. Pre-production work on one of them began in mid-July on what its organisers describe as one of the busiest roads in London, when a billboard went up featuring a smug-looking Gary Lineker, a surprised-looking Emily Maitlis, their respective pay packets and the simple message: Are you still paying? Below was a tagline carrying the point of the exercise: Defund the BBC.

This anti-Auntie campaign is ostensibly the creation of Glasgow University history student James Yucel, and ostensibly it aims to decriminalise non-payment and reduce the scope of the licence fee so that it only covers BBC content. Will the Defunders be happy achieving just those two outcomes though? For as they are well aware, the more you remove the BBCs means of raising revenue, the less able the BBC is to produce content. And in this case, the Defunders hope it will be the kind of content they dont like, created by people whose political views they oppose.

Its no surprise to see Lineker, who vociferously supported Remain, on the billboards. Nor is it a surprise to see the Defunders targeting Maitlis, who missed an episode of Newsnight in May following her monologue criticising the governments handling over Dominic Cummings revolutionary optometry experiment in Barnard Castle. In a YouTube video launching his campaign, Yucel protested that, Ultimately the BBC is not impartial, they regularly fail to introduce guests with their political background, they accidentally edit footage that makes the government look worse than they actually are, and yeah, I think the people have had enough really.

So who are Yucels colleagues in the Defund The BBC campaign? The press officer is Liam Deacon, who worked in the same capacity on the Brexit Partys 2019 general election campaign (slogan: run away, run away) and before that worked at alt-right website Breitbart London, where in the 14 months before the referendum he published 450 stories about immigration, migrants or Islam.

Campaign champions include Darren Grimes, whose interview with David so many damn blacks Starkey will no doubt be held up as an example of the kind of journalism a defunded BBC could produce if only it dared. Another content champion is Calvin Robinson, who recently told Spiked that: Anything that doesnt fit the liberal, metropolitan perspective of the BBC is disregarded The BBC seems to have become an outlet for woke propaganda. His examples of shows which offer this diet of leftist tripe included Doctor Who and Countryfile.

Robinson, a teacher, felt similar about the education system in 2016, when after the referendum he professed to be not at all surprised that the majority of young people voted in line with a left wing agenda to remain in the undemocratic, or even anti-democratic European Union Schools have been grooming children towards this decision for years.

Strange how it all comes back to Brexit, isnt it? The candidates, the press officer, the campaigner. Even Defund The BBCs campaign co-ordinator Rebecca Ryan is a veteran of Stand Up 4 Brexit, the unsuccessful quest to find a pro-Leave comedian able to draw more laughs than Mark Francois can just from standing there being Mark Francois.

So is Defund The BBC just a revenge strike on behalf of what they see as pro-Remain bias before and after the referendum? The Defund the BBC campaign is not connected with Brexit, the 2016 voting preferences of the team are therefore irrelevant, a spokesperson told us. Theyre concerned instead, they say, with the fact one in 10 court cases in the UK concerns non-payment of the TV licence fee, and 70% of those prosecuted are women. It disproportionately affects the poor in our society.

They add that the key driver for the campaign is not post-Brexit rage but that: The BBC is reneging on its commitment to fund free TV licences for the over-75s, which comes into force from August 1. What better time to focus on this issue? Given that it was the government that decided to stop paying the BBC to fund this, effectively forcing their hand, its a rotten line of attack. But its working so far Defund The BBC has raised just under 45,000 in just under a month, with an aim to get to 100,000 and produce more billboards across the country soon.

Does all this mean James, Darren, Liam and pals are dodging the detector vans? The spokesperson said: It would be unusual to work on a campaign focused on an organisation and yet not view and monitor its output. The BBC requires a licence fee to watch its output, therefore the entire team have paid for their TV licences for work purposes.

But if they are successful, perhaps there will be no need to pay for much longer and if arts programmes should be cut and the World Service closed, whats all that against Doctor Who no longer being woke?

If you really do want to defund the BBC, their website is at http://www.defundbbc.uk

Almost four years after its creation The New European goes from strength to strength across print and online, offering a pro-European perspective on Brexit and reporting on the political response to the coronavirus outbreak, climate change and international politics. But we can only rebalance the right wing extremes of much of the UK national press with your support. If you value what we are doing, you can help us by making a contribution to the cost of our journalism.

Excerpt from:

The Brexiteers behind the 'Defund the BBC' campaign - The New European

Bill Maher, Who Said the N-Word on TV, Decries ‘Cancel Culture’ – The Daily Beast

Posted on by

Bill Maher, the longtime political satirist and host of HBOs Real Time, harbors an Ahab-like obsession with cancel culturethe theory that prominent politically incorrect (to borrow his catchphrase) folks are being pushed out of their jobs by bad-faith online mobs.

This likely stems from the time when, six days after the 9/11 attacks, Maher eventually had his show Politically Incorrect canceled by Sinclair after calling the terrorists involved not cowardly for staying in the airplane when it hits the building, a statement that had come on the heels of Maher comparing his dogs to retarded children. In a matter of months, however, he was given a brand-new show by HBO, which hes hosted for the last 17 years.

And, like many of the rich, privileged, highly influential signatories of Harpers infamous cancel culture letterfrom Malcolm Gladwell and Fareed Zakaria, who have committed multiples acts of plagiarism yet have not seen their opportunities slip, to J.K. Rowling, an anti-trans billionaire and bestselling authorMaher is a living example that cancel culture is overblown.

On his HBO show, Maher has said the N-word; regularly defended powerful men accused of sexual harassment; yukked it up with the alt-right; made discriminatory statements against Muslims; pushed anti-vaxx nonsense; and suggested that everyone should want to get COVID-19. He has yet to be so much as censured by HBO (at least publicly) for his behavior.

And so, on Friday night, Maher welcomed Bari Weiss and Thomas Chatterton Williams, the two people who have dined out the most on the Harpers letter, to discuss cancel culture.

As a guy who did a show called Politically Incorrect and another called Real Time, thank you, because we need a pushback on cancel culture, said Maher, adding, What strikes me about it is the pushback is coming from liberals, and almost anyone who signed this letter is a liberal! (The bulk of the letters signatories are more libertarian than liberal.)

Chatterton Williams, who was not able to provide a single solid example of someone whos been truly canceled during a recent interview with The New Yorkers Isaac Chotiner, spoke of the overall climate of censoriousness and applauded the letters international coverage; meanwhile, Weiss referred to it as a warning cry from inside these institutions, this growing culture of illiberalism, which is different from criticism. She added, It is about punishmentit is about taking away their job.

Lets unpack this a bit. Chatterton Williams is a prominent author and writer who has for some reason penned two memoirs before the age of 40 and contributes to The New York Times Magazine. Weiss recently wrote a book and was an opinion writer at The New York Times. These people have massive platforms. Furthermore, Weiss recent resignation from The New York Times, which shes painted as her being canceled by a major institution, was by all accounts a coordinated PR effort conducted by Weiss and the writer Andrew Sullivan who had been plotting to launch a new venture for people who presumably wont criticize them as much.

Weiss went on to draw a false equivalence between those on the right who worship Trump as a deity who can do nothing wrong and those on the left where to be anything less than defund the police or abolish the police makes you a hereticthe latter of course not even being true, since the majority of those on the left, including Democratic nominee Joe Biden, dont support defunding or abolishing the police. Im also not sure how the blind worship of a fascistic ruler is on the same level as believing in defund the police, or to support the reallocation of some police funds elsewhere, though it sounds like Weiss does not understand that defund the police does not actually mean taking away all the polices money.

Im not sure how the blind worship of a fascistic ruler is somehow on the same level as believing in defund the police, or to support the reallocation of some police funds elsewhere.

Maher agreed wholeheartedly with Weiss (whom he called hip) and Chatterton Williams, opining, For those who think that this is just, again, celebrities whining or elites or something, there was a survey recently and 62 percent of peoplesay theyre afraid to share what they truly believe.

Heres the thing: this letter was mostly celebrities whining. And that study Maher cited was conducted by the Cato Institutea right-wing organization founded by Charles Koch.

The reality is that speech has never been more Democratic, and platforms like Twitter, that the Weiss and Chatterton Williams of the world decry as unfair, have given voice to countless underrepresented groups, from Black Lives Matter to the Arab Spring. Sure, there are some cancellations happening in media and academia but they arent of these politically incorrect writers with gigantic platforms who are paid large sums of money to share their politically incorrect opinions and at no risk of cancellation. Theyre of people like Norman Finkelstein, who was driven out of academia and denied tenure for criticizing Israelthe very same crime that drove Weiss to campaign to get Arab professors fired during her college heyday.

Plus, with all the real problems going on in the world150,000-plus dead from the novel coronavirus, unidentified federal agents kidnapping protesters on the streets, police brutality against Black bodies, Trump threatening to postpone the electionwhy is Maher dedicating the majority of his program to this crap?

Go here to read the rest:

Bill Maher, Who Said the N-Word on TV, Decries 'Cancel Culture' - The Daily Beast

A Space Alliance Between the Quads: The United States, Japan, Australia, and India – International Policy Digest

Posted on by

With space beckoning as the next engine of economic growth worldwide, an alliance between the United States, Japan, Australia, and India (known as the Quads) in the exploration and exploitation of the mineral resources and economic opportunities in space makes sense. With China becoming increasingly aggressive towards its neighbors, its burgeoning space exploration of the Moon threatens to extend its ability to achieve military dominance to a level never seen before. The race that appears to be developing to exploit the riches of the Moon, and ultimately the asteroid belt that is between Mars and Jupiter, can be the defining moment of world history.

If the world could come to an agreement to work with one another to develop the mineral wealth of our solar system, the future of the human race would be bright with promise. With China exhibiting behavior reminiscent of Genghis Khan, if she is allowed to achieve military mastery of near-Earth space, the human race would be doomed to a period of darkness that none could foresee ending.

Chinas Push into Space

The Chinese space program began in earnest in 2003 when Chinese astronaut Yang Liwei became the first Chinese national to orbit the Earth. Since then the Chinese have begun an aggressive drive to become the dominant space power in the solar system.

The primary focus of the Chinese space effort is currently concentrated on the Moon. The official name of the Chinese Moon mission is known as the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program or CLEP. CLEP is also known as the Change Project, after the Chinese Moon goddess, Change. The CLEP is a series of automated missions to the Moon which culminated in the launch of Change 4, which landed on the Moon on January 3, 2019. Change 4 consists of a lander, a rover with a dedicated orbiter called the Queqiao, which was placed in a halo orbit near the Earth-Moon L2 point to facilitate communication with Change 4. The rover is solar-powered, perfectly suited for the far side of the Moon. The rover communicates with the lander, and the lander communicates with the orbiter, the orbiter than communicates with the Beijing Aerospace Flight Control Center located in a suburb northwest of Beijing.

The mission of Change 4 is to begin mapping the soil (called regolith) on the far side of the Moon to identify concentrations of helium-3, which provides a critical fuel element for a functioning fusion reactor (called a tokamak).

The conclusion of the CLEP will be the landing of a crewed spacecraft onto the surface of the Moon. This is currently scheduled to be accomplished in 2029 or 2030. The latest push from China is a Mars launch which took place on the 23rd of July 2020. Called the Tianwen-1, the mission carried a lander, a rover, and an orbiter.

The Advantage of an Alliance Between the Quads

The first advantage of a space exploration and exploitation alliance would be to reduce the staggering costs of the construction of a space dock to facilitate the construction of inter-planetary vehicles (IPVs). Aside from the initial construction and operations of IPVs, each member of the Quad states bring advantages that complement each other and would lead to a successful race to Mars, and the establishment of the support facilities that will be necessary for the successful mining of the asteroid belt.

The United States: The United States has the most experience in space flight. The U.S. also has the advanced technological base necessary for the advanced avionics that will form the backbone for the construction of a space dock, as well as the construction of the IPVs that would be necessary for the transport of the human passengers, crew, and machinery for the construction of the buildings necessary for human habitation. The signing of the Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act of 2004 effectively removed NASA from the launch portion of space exploration. SpaceX and Blue Origin are now the largest space launch businesses in the United States, so this would have to be contracted out to them for U.S. participation.

India: India already has a fledgling space industry and has some experience in launching satellites into low earth orbit. India attempted a Moon launch which arrived at the Moon, but the lander and rover crashed upon trying to land on the far side of the Moon. Indias biggest advantage in a partnership with the Quads is the cost of goods sold. While India has a highly educated workforce, the sunk costs and labor costs in the space industry are much less expensive in India than in the other member states of the Quads.

Australia: A tremendous amount of steel will be necessary for the construction of the space dock. Australia has the natural resources needed to provide for the manufacture of the steel that will be necessary.

Japan: The use of automation and robotics will be key to the successful construction of the space dock and for the construction of the IPVs that will transport the future colonists of Mars, as well as the engineers, miners, and associated support personnel. Since it will be difficult to support life during the construction of the space dock, robots, and automated machinery will be crucial in the successful outcome of the finalization of the space dock.

If the Quads can unite and work together to develop the new space economy based on the rule of law, and offer economic opportunity for all, a new era of prosperity for the human race would dawn. And the riches of space would warm the cold face of the Earth and bring about an end to want and hunger among humanity.

More here:

A Space Alliance Between the Quads: The United States, Japan, Australia, and India - International Policy Digest

Space station – Wikipedia

Posted on by

Habitable artificial satellite

A space station, also known as an orbital station or an orbital space station, is a spacecraft capable of supporting a human crew in orbit for an extended period of time. It lacks major propulsion or landing systems. Stations must have docking ports to allow other spacecraft to dock to transfer crew and supplies.

The purpose of maintaining an orbital outpost varies depending on the program. Space stations have most often been launched for scientific purposes, but military launches have also occurred. As of 2019[update], one fully operational and permanently inhabited space station is in low Earth orbit: the International Space Station (ISS), which is used to study the effects of long-term space flight on the human body as well as to provide a location to conduct a greater number and longer length of scientific studies than is possible on other space vehicles. China, India, Russia, and the U.S., as well as Bigelow Aerospace and Axiom Space, are all planning other stations for the coming decades.

The first mention of anything resembling a space station occurred in Edward Everett Hale's 1869 "The Brick Moon".[1] The first to give serious, scientifically grounded consideration to space stations were Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and Hermann Oberth about two decades apart in the early 20th century.[2] In 1929 Herman Potonik's The Problem of Space Travel was published, the first to envision a "rotating wheel" space station to create artificial gravity.[1] Conceptualized during the Second World War, the "sun gun" was a theoretical orbital weapon orbiting Earth at a height of 8,200 kilometres (5,100mi). No further research was ever conducted.[3] In 1951, Wernher von Braun published a concept for a rotating wheel space station in Collier's Weekly, referencing Potonik's idea. However, development of a rotating station was never begun in the 20th century.[2]

During the latter half of the 20th century, the Soviet Union developed and launched the world's first space station, Salyut 1.[4] The Almaz and Salyut series were eventually joined by Skylab, Mir, and Tiangong-1 and Tiangong-2. The hardware developed during the initial Soviet efforts remains in use, with evolved variants a considerable part of the ISS space station orbiting today. Each crew member stays aboard the station for weeks or months, but rarely more than a year. Starting with the ill-fated flight of the Soyuz 11 crew to Salyut 1, all recent human spaceflight duration records have been set aboard space stations. The duration record for a single spaceflight is 437.75 days, set by Valeri Polyakov aboard Mir from 1994 to 1995. As of 2016[update], four cosmonauts have completed single missions of over a year, all aboard Mir. The last military-use space station was the Soviet Salyut 5, which was launched under the Almaz program and orbited between 1976 and 1977.[5]

Early stations were monolithic designs that were constructed and launched in one piece, generally containing all their supplies and experimental equipment. A crew would then be launched to join the station and perform research. After the supplies had been used up, the station was abandoned.[4]

The first space station was Salyut 1, which was launched by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The earlier Soviet stations were all designated "Salyut", but among these there were two distinct types: civilian and military. The military stations, Salyut 2, Salyut 3, and Salyut 5, were also known as Almaz stations.[6]

The civilian stations Salyut 6 and Salyut 7 were built with two docking ports, which allowed a second crew to visit, bringing a new spacecraft with them; the Soyuz ferry could spend 90 days in space, at which point it needed to be replaced by a fresh Soyuz spacecraft.[7] This allowed for a crew to man the station continually. The American Skylab (1973-1979) was also equipped with two docking ports, like second-generation stations, but the extra port was never utilized. The presence of a second port on the new stations allowed Progress supply vehicles to be docked to the station, meaning that fresh supplies could be brought to aid long-duration missions. This concept was expanded on Salyut 7, which "hard docked" with a TKS tug shortly before it was abandoned; this served as a proof-of-concept for the use of modular space stations. The later Salyuts may reasonably be seen as a transition between the two groups.[6]

Unlike previous stations, the Soviet space station Mir had a modular design; a core unit was launched, and additional modules, generally with a specific role, were later added to that. This method allows for greater flexibility in operation, as well as removing the need for a single immensely powerful launch vehicle. Modular stations are also designed from the outset to have their supplies provided by logistical support craft, which allows for a longer lifetime at the cost of requiring regular support launches.[8]

Modules are still being developed based on the design and capabilities of Mir.

China's first space laboratory, Tiangong-1 was launched in September 2011.[9] The uncrewed Shenzhou 8 then successfully performed an automatic rendezvous and docking in November 2011. The crewed Shenzhou 9 then docked with Tiangong-1 in June 2012, the crewed Shenzhou 10 in 2013. A second space laboratory Tiangong-2 was launched in September 2016, while a plan for Tiangong-3 was merged with Tiangong-2.[10]

In May 2017, China informed the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs that Tiangong-1's altitude was decaying and that it would soon reenter the atmosphere and break up.[10] The reentry was projected to occur in late March or early April 2018.[11] According to the China Manned Space Engineering Office, Tiangong-1 reentered over the South Pacific Ocean, northwest of Tahiti, on 2 April 2018 at 00:15 UTC.[12][13][14][15][16]

In July 2019 the China Manned Space Engineering Office announced that it was planning to deorbit Tiangong-2 in the near future, but no specific date was given.[17] The station subsequently made a controlled reentry on 19 July and burned up over the South Pacific Ocean.[18]

The ISS is divided into two main sections, the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS) and the US Orbital Segment (USOS). The first module of the International Space Station, Zarya, was launched in 1998.[19]

The Russian Orbital Segment's "second-generation" modules were able to launch on Proton, fly to the correct orbit, and dock themselves without human intervention.[20] Connections are automatically made for power, data, gases, and propellants. The Russian autonomous approach allows the assembly of space stations prior to the launch of crew.

The Russian "second-generation" modules are able to be reconfigured to suit changing needs. As of 2009, RKK Energia was considering the removal and reuse of some modules of the ROS on the Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex after the end of mission is reached for the ISS.[21] However, in September 2017 the head of Roscosmos said that the technical feasibility of separating the station to form OPSEK had been studied, and there were now no plans to separate the Russian segment from the ISS.[22]

In contrast, the main US modules launched on the Space Shuttle and were attached to the ISS by crews during EVAs. Connections for electrical power, data, propulsion, and cooling fluids are also made at this time, resulting in an integrated block of modules that is not designed for disassembly and must be deorbited as one mass.[23]

The Lunar Gateway is a future international space station intended to serve as a science platform and as a staging area for the lunar landings of NASA's Artemis program and follow-on human mission to Mars. The Power and Propulsion Element (PPE) started development during the now canceled Asteroid Redirect Mission. It was envisioned as a robotic, high performance solar electric spacecraft that would retrieve a multi-ton boulder from an asteroid and bring it to lunar orbit for study.[24] When ARM was canceled, the concept was repurposed as the Gateway propulsion system.[25][26] In May 2019, the PPE manufacturing contract was awarded.[27]

Two types of space stations have been flown: monolithic and modular. Monolithic stations consist of a single vehicle and are launched by one rocket. Modular stations consist of two or more separate vehicles that are launched independently and docked on orbit. Modular stations are currently preferred due to lower costs and greater flexibility. Both types can be refueled by cargo craft, such as Progress.[citation needed]

A space station is a complex vehicle that must incorporate many interrelated subsystems, including structure, electrical power, thermal control, attitude determination and control, orbital navigation and propulsion, automation and robotics, computing and communications, environmental and life support, crew facilities, and crew and cargo transportation. Stations must serve a useful role, which drives the capabilities required.[citation needed]

Space stations are often made from durable materials that have to weather space radiation, internal pressure, micrometeoroids, and thermal effects of the sun and cold temperatures for very long periods of time. They are typically made from stainless steel, titanium and high-quality aluminum alloys, with layers of insulation such as Kevlar as a ballistics shield protection.[39]

The space station environment presents a variety of challenges to human habitability, including short-term problems such as the limited supplies of air, water and food and the need to manage waste heat, and long-term ones such as weightlessness and relatively high levels of ionizing radiation. These conditions can create long-term health problems for space-station inhabitants, including muscle atrophy, bone deterioration, balance disorders, eyesight disorders, and elevated risk of cancer.[40]

Future space habitats may attempt to address these issues, and could be designed for occupation beyond the weeks or months that current missions typically last. Possible solutions include the creation of artificial gravity by a rotating structure, the inclusion of radiation shielding, and the development of on-site agricultural ecosystems. Some designs might even accommodate large numbers of people, becoming essentially "cities in space" where people would reside semi-permanently. For now, no space station suitable for long-term human residence has ever been built, since the current launch costs for even a small station are not economically or politically viable.[41]

Molds that develop aboard space stations can produce acids that degrade metal, glass and rubber. Despite an expanding array of molecular approaches for detecting microorganisms, rapid and robust means of assessing the differential viability of the microbial cells, as a function of phylogenetic lineage, remain elusive.[42]

The Soviet space stations came in two types, the civilian Durable Orbital Station (DOS), and the military Almaz stations.Dates refer to periods when stations were inhabited by crews.

Space stations, sometimes referred to as star bases, are a common trope in science fiction. Notable works they appear in include TV shows Babylon 5 and Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, among others. Typically they act as drydocks, battle stations or trading outposts.[47]

Original post:

Space station - Wikipedia

space station | Definition, History, & Facts | Britannica

Posted on by

Space station, an artificial structure placed in orbit and having the pressurized enclosure, power, supplies, and environmental systems necessary to support human habitation for extended periods. Depending on its configuration, a space station can serve as a base for a variety of activities. These include observations of the Sun and other astronomical objects, study of Earths resources and environment, military reconnaissance, and long-term investigations of the behaviour of materials and biological systemsincluding human physiology and biochemistryin a state of weightlessness, or microgravity.

Britannica Quiz

Astronomy and Space Quiz

How many times larger is the radius of the Sun than that of the Earth?

Small space stations are launched fully assembled, but larger stations are sent up in modules and assembled in orbit. To make the most efficient use of its carrier vehicles capacity, a space station is launched vacant, and its crew membersand sometimes additional equipmentfollow in separate vehicles. A space stations operation, therefore, requires a transportation system to ferry crews and hardware and to replenish the propellant, air, water, food, and such other items as are consumed during routine operations. Space stations use large panels of solar cells and banks of storage batteries as their source of electrical power. They also employ geostationary relay satellites for continuous communication with mission controllers on the ground and satellite-based positioning systems for navigation.

Since 1971, 11 space stations launched into a low orbit around Earth have been occupied for varying lengths of time. In chronological order they are Salyut 1, Skylab, Salyuts 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, Mir, the International Space Station, and Tiangong 1 and 2 (see table).

Between 1952 and 1954, in a series of articles in the popular magazine Colliers, the German-American rocket pioneer Wernher von Braun presented his vision of a space station as a massive wheel-shaped structure that would rotate to generate artificial gravity from centrifugal force, sparing its crew of 1,000 scientists and engineers the drawbacks of weightlessness. It would be serviced by a fleet of winged spaceships employing nuclear engines. One of the stations primary tasks would be to assemble vehicles for expeditions to the Moon. That concept remained a popular portrait of humankinds future in space as late as 1968, when the American motion-picture director Stanley Kubricks classic science-fiction film 2001: A Space Odyssey depicted a spinning double-wheel station under construction above Earth. On a regular schedule, a fleet of commercial space planes flew people up to the station, from which they could catch a ferry to the Moon.

In Brauns day, the development of a space station was thought to be a preliminary stepping-stone to the Moon and planets, but, when Cold War politics prompted Pres. John F. Kennedy in 1961 to commit the United States to landing a man on the Moon before the decade was out, there was no time to pursue this logical route. Rather, a single spacecraft would be obliged to ride an expendable rocket into orbit and fly directly to its goal. Nevertheless, even as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) plunged deeply into the Apollo program, it studied several space station strategies as part of an Apollo Applications Program, which would exploit vehicles built for the Moon race for more general orbital activities.

Even as 2001 was restating Brauns ambitious vision to the public, it already was obvious to space engineers that the first real space stations would have to be much simpler than their fictional counterparts. One NASA plan was to have an Apollo spacecraft dock with a spent rocket stage, whereupon its crew would pressurize the rockets empty hydrogen-propellant tank with air and install scientific equipment that would turn it into a laboratory for several weeks of occupancy. The U.S. Air Force had its own plan to operate a Manned Orbiting Laboratory fitted with an advanced camera to facilitate military reconnaissance activities. In 1969, however, just as NASA attained Kennedys goal of a crewed lunar landing, Pres. Richard M. Nixon canceled the Manned Orbiting Laboratory and restricted the Apollo Applications Program to a single station.

Like the U.S. military, the Soviet Union had a plan to put a series of reconnaissance stations in orbit by the 1970s. In 1969, with development running late for the large spacecraft that was to ferry crews and supplies to the station, Soviet officials decided to accelerate the program by employing the Soyuz spacecraft that had been developed during the failed attempt to win the Moon race. Moreover, because some of the systems needed for a military reconnaissance platform were not yet available, it was decided to initiate the program with a station equipped as a scientific laboratory.

Read the original here:

space station | Definition, History, & Facts | Britannica

International Space Station – Wikipedia

Posted on by

Space station in low Earth orbit

ISS Agreements

ISS Logo

The International Space Station (ISS) is a modular space station (habitable artificial satellite) in low Earth orbit. The ISS program is a multi-national collaborative project between five participating space agencies: NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), and CSA (Canada).[6][7] It is an international collaborative effort between multiple countries. The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements.[8] It evolved from the Space Station Freedom proposal.

The ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which scientific experiments are conducted in astrobiology, astronomy, meteorology, physics, and other fields.[9][10][11] The station is suited for testing the spacecraft systems and equipment required for possible future long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars.[12] It is the largest artificial object in space and the largest satellite in low Earth orbit, regularly visible to the naked eye from Earth's surface.[13][14] It maintains an orbit with an average altitude of 400 kilometres (250mi) by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the Zvezda Service Module or visiting spacecraft.[15] The ISS circles the Earth in roughly 93minutes, completing 15.5orbits per day.[16]

The station is divided into two sections: the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS), operated by Russia; and the United States Orbital Segment (USOS), which is shared by many nations. Roscosmos has endorsed the continued operation of ISS through 2024,[17] but had previously proposed using elements of the Russian segment to construct a new Russian space station called OPSEK.[18] As of December2018[update], the station is expected to operate until 2030.[19]

The first ISS component was launched in 1998, with the first long-term residents arriving on 2November 2000.[20] Since then, the station has been continuously occupied for 19years and 274days.[21] This is the longest continuous human presence in low Earth orbit, having surpassed the previous record of 9years and 357days held by the Mir space station. The latest major pressurised module was fitted in 2011, with an experimental inflatable space habitat added in 2016. Development and assembly of the station continues, with several major new Russian elements scheduled for launch starting in 2020. The ISS consists of pressurised habitation modules, structural trusses, photovoltaic solar arrays, thermal radiators, docking ports, experiment bays and robotic arms. Major ISS modules have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets and US Space Shuttles.[22]

The ISS is the ninth space station to be inhabited by crews, following the Soviet and later Russian Salyut, Almaz, and Mir stations as well as Skylab from the US. The station is serviced by a variety of visiting spacecraft: the Russian Soyuz and Progress, the US Dragon and Cygnus, the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle,[6] and formerly the European Automated Transfer Vehicle. The Dragon spacecraft allows the return of pressurised cargo to Earth (downmass), which is used, for example, to repatriate scientific experiments for further analysis. The Soyuz return capsule has minimal downmass capability next to the astronauts.

As of September 2019[update], 239astronauts, cosmonauts, and space tourists from 20 different nations have visited the space station, many of them multiple times. The United States sent 151people, Russia sent 47, nine were Japanese, eight Canadian, five Italian, four French, three German, and one each from Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, the Netherlands, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, the United Arab Emirates, and the United Kingdom.[23]

The ISS was originally intended to be a laboratory, observatory, and factory while providing transportation, maintenance, and a low Earth orbit staging base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars, and asteroids. However, not all of the uses envisioned in the initial memorandum of understanding between NASA and Roscosmos have come to fruition.[24] In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given additional roles of serving commercial, diplomatic,[25] and educational purposes.[26]

Fisheye view of several labs

The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research, with power, data, cooling, and crew available to support experiments. Small uncrewed spacecraft can also provide platforms for experiments, especially those involving zero gravity and exposure to space, but space stations offer a long-term environment where studies can be performed potentially for decades, combined with ready access by human researchers.[27][28]

The ISS simplifies individual experiments by allowing groups of experiments to share the same launches and crew time. Research is conducted in a wide variety of fields, including astrobiology, astronomy, physical sciences, materials science, space weather, meteorology, and human research including space medicine and the life sciences.[9][10][11][29][30] Scientists on Earth have timely access to the data and can suggest experimental modifications to the crew. If follow-on experiments are necessary, the routinely scheduled launches of resupply craft allows new hardware to be launched with relative ease.[28] Crews fly expeditions of several months' duration, providing approximately 160 person-hours per week of labour with a crew of six. However, a considerable amount of crew time is taken up by station maintenance.[9][31]

Perhaps the most notable ISS experiment is the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), which is intended to detect dark matter and answer other fundamental questions about our universe and is as important as the Hubble Space Telescope according to NASA. Currently docked on station, it could not have been easily accommodated on a free flying satellite platform because of its power and bandwidth needs.[32][33] On 3 April 2013, scientists reported that hints of dark matter may have been detected by the AMS.[34][35][36][37][38][39] According to the scientists, "The first results from the space-borne Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer confirm an unexplained excess of high-energy positrons in Earth-bound cosmic rays".

The space environment is hostile to life. Unprotected presence in space is characterised by an intense radiation field (consisting primarily of protons and other subatomic charged particles from the solar wind, in addition to cosmic rays), high vacuum, extreme temperatures, and microgravity.[40] Some simple forms of life called extremophiles,[41] as well as small invertebrates called tardigrades[42] can survive in this environment in an extremely dry state through desiccation.

Medical research improves knowledge about the effects of long-term space exposure on the human body, including muscle atrophy, bone loss, and fluid shift. This data will be used to determine whether high duration human spaceflight and space colonisation are feasible. As of 2006[update], data on bone loss and muscular atrophy suggest that there would be a significant risk of fractures and movement problems if astronauts landed on a planet after a lengthy interplanetary cruise, such as the six-month interval required to travel to Mars.[43][44]

Medical studies are conducted aboard the ISS on behalf of the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI). Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity study in which astronauts perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts. The study considers the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions in space. Usually, there is no physician on board the ISS and diagnosis of medical conditions is a challenge. It is anticipated that remotely guided ultrasound scans will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations where access to a trained physician is difficult.[45][46][47]

Gravity at the altitude of the ISS is approximately 90% as strong as at Earth's surface, but objects in orbit are in a continuous state of freefall, resulting in an apparent state of weightlessness.[48] This perceived weightlessness is disturbed by five separate effects:[49]

Researchers are investigating the effect of the station's near-weightless environment on the evolution, development, growth and internal processes of plants and animals. In response to some of this data, NASA wants to investigate microgravity's effects on the growth of three-dimensional, human-like tissues, and the unusual protein crystals that can be formed in space.[10]

Investigating the physics of fluids in microgravity will provide better models of the behaviour of fluids. Because fluids can be almost completely combined in microgravity, physicists investigate fluids that do not mix well on Earth. In addition, examining reactions that are slowed by low gravity and low temperatures will improve our understanding of superconductivity.[10]

The study of materials science is an important ISS research activity, with the objective of reaping economic benefits through the improvement of techniques used on the ground.[50] Other areas of interest include the effect of the low gravity environment on combustion, through the study of the efficiency of burning and control of emissions and pollutants. These findings may improve current knowledge about energy production, and lead to economic and environmental benefits. Future plans are for the researchers aboard the ISS to examine aerosols, ozone, water vapour, and oxides in Earth's atmosphere, as well as cosmic rays, cosmic dust, antimatter, and dark matter in the Universe.[10]

The ISS provides a location in the relative safety of low Earth orbit to test spacecraft systems that will be required for long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars. This provides experience in operations, maintenance as well as repair and replacement activities on-orbit, which will be essential skills in operating spacecraft farther from Earth, mission risks can be reduced and the capabilities of interplanetary spacecraft advanced.[12] Referring to the MARS-500 experiment, ESA states that "Whereas the ISS is essential for answering questions concerning the possible impact of weightlessness, radiation and other space-specific factors, aspects such as the effect of long-term isolation and confinement can be more appropriately addressed via ground-based simulations".[51] Sergey Krasnov, the head of human space flight programmes for Russia's space agency, Roscosmos, in 2011 suggested a "shorter version" of MARS-500 may be carried out on the ISS.[52]

In 2009, noting the value of the partnership framework itself, Sergey Krasnov wrote, "When compared with partners acting separately, partners developing complementary abilities and resources could give us much more assurance of the success and safety of space exploration. The ISS is helping further advance near-Earth space exploration and realisation of prospective programmes of research and exploration of the Solar system, including the Moon and Mars."[53] A crewed mission to Mars may be a multinational effort involving space agencies and countries outside the current ISS partnership. In 2010, ESA Director-General Jean-Jacques Dordain stated his agency was ready to propose to the other four partners that China, India and South Korea be invited to join the ISS partnership.[54] NASA chief Charlie Bolden stated in February 2011, "Any mission to Mars is likely to be a global effort".[55] Currently, US federal legislation prevents NASA co-operation with China on space projects.[56]

The ISS crew provides opportunities for students on Earth by running student-developed experiments, making educational demonstrations, allowing for student participation in classroom versions of ISS experiments, and directly engaging students using radio, videolink and email.[6][57] ESA offers a wide range of free teaching materials that can be downloaded for use in classrooms.[58] In one lesson, students can navigate a 3-D model of the interior and exterior of the ISS, and face spontaneous challenges to solve in real time.[59]

JAXA aims to inspire children to "pursue craftsmanship" and to heighten their "awareness of the importance of life and their responsibilities in society".[60] Through a series of education guides, a deeper understanding of the past and near-term future of crewed space flight, as well as that of Earth and life, will be learned.[61][62] In the JAXA Seeds in Space experiments, the mutation effects of spaceflight on plant seeds aboard the ISS is explored. Students grow sunflower seeds which flew on the ISS for about nine months. In the first phase of Kib utilisation from 2008 to mid-2010, researchers from more than a dozen Japanese universities conducted experiments in diverse fields.[63]

Cultural activities are another major objective. Tetsuo Tanaka, director of JAXA's Space Environment and Utilization Center, says "There is something about space that touches even people who are not interested in science."[64]

Amateur Radio on the ISS (ARISS) is a volunteer programme which encourages students worldwide to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering and mathematics through amateur radio communications opportunities with the ISS crew. ARISS is an international working group, consisting of delegations from nine countries including several countries in Europe as well as Japan, Russia, Canada, and the United States. In areas where radio equipment cannot be used, speakerphones connect students to ground stations which then connect the calls to the station.[65]

First Orbit is a feature-length documentary film about Vostok 1, the first crewed space flight around the Earth. By matching the orbit of the International Space Station to that of Vostok 1 as closely as possible, in terms of ground path and time of day, documentary filmmaker Christopher Riley and ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli were able to film the view that Yuri Gagarin saw on his pioneering orbital space flight. This new footage was cut together with the original Vostok 1 mission audio recordings sourced from the Russian State Archive. Nespoli, during Expedition 26/27, filmed the majority of the footage for this documentary film, and as a result is credited as its director of photography.[66] The film was streamed through the website firstorbit.org in a global YouTube premiere in 2011, under a free licence.[67]

In May 2013, commander Chris Hadfield shot a music video of David Bowie's "Space Oddity" on board the station; the film was released on YouTube.[68] It was the first music video ever to be filmed in space.[69]

In November 2017, while participating in Expedition 52/53 on the ISS, Paolo Nespoli made two recordings (one in English the other in his native Italian) of his spoken voice, for use on Wikipedia articles. These were the first content made specifically for Wikipedia, in space.[70][71]

Since the International Space Station is a multi-national collaborative project, the components for in-orbit assembly were manufactured in various countries around the world. Beginning in the mid 1990s, the U.S. components Destiny, Unity, the Integrated Truss Structure, and the solar arrays were fabricated at the Marshall Space Flight Center and the Michoud Assembly Facility. These modules were delivered to the Operations and Checkout Building and the Space Station Processing Facility for final assembly and processing for launch.[72]

The Russian modules, including Zarya and Zvezda, were manufactured at the Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center in Moscow. Zvezda was initially manufactured in 1985 as a component for Mir-2, but was never launched and instead became the ISS Service Module.[73]

The European Space Agency Columbus module was manufactured at the EADS Astrium Space Transportation facilities in Bremen, Germany, along with many other contractors throughout Europe.[74] The other ESA-built modules - Harmony, Tranquility, the Leonardo MPLM, and the Cupola - were initially manufactured at the Thales Alenia Space factory in Turin, Italy. The structural steel hulls of the modules were transported by aircraft to the Kennedy Space Center SSPF for launch processing.[75]

The Japanese Experiment Module Kib, was fabricated in various technology manufacturing facilities in Japan, at the NASDA (now JAXA) Tsukuba Space Center, and the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. The Kibo module was transported by ship and flown by aircraft to the KSC Space Station Processing Facility.[76]

The Mobile Servicing System, consisting of the Canadarm2 and the Dextre grapple fixture, was manufactured at various factories in Canada (such as the David Florida Laboratory) and the United States, under contract by the Canadian Space Agency. The mobile base system, a connecting framework for Canadarm2 mounted on rails, was built by Northrop Grumman.

The assembly of the International Space Station, a major endeavour in space architecture, began in November 1998.[3] Russian modules launched and docked robotically, with the exception of Rassvet. All other modules were delivered by the Space Shuttle, which required installation by ISS and Shuttle crewmembers using the Canadarm2 (SSRMS) and extra-vehicular activities (EVAs); as of 5June2011[update], they had added 159 components during more than 1,000 hours of EVA (see List of ISS spacewalks). 127 of these spacewalks originated from the station, and the remaining 32 were launched from the airlocks of docked Space Shuttles.[77] The beta angle of the station had to be considered at all times during construction.[78]

The first module of the ISS, Zarya, was launched on 20 November 1998 on an autonomous Russian Proton rocket. It provided propulsion, attitude control, communications, electrical power, but lacked long-term life support functions. Two weeks later, a passive NASA module Unity was launched aboard Space Shuttle flight STS-88 and attached to Zarya by astronauts during EVAs. This module has two Pressurised Mating Adapters (PMAs), one connects permanently to Zarya, the other allowed the Space Shuttle to dock to the space station. At that time, the Russian station Mir was still inhabited, and the ISS remained uncrewed for two years. On 12 July 2000, Zvezda was launched into orbit. Preprogrammed commands on board deployed its solar arrays and communications antenna. It then became the passive target for a rendezvous with Zarya and Unity: it maintained a station-keeping orbit while the Zarya-Unity vehicle performed the rendezvous and docking via ground control and the Russian automated rendezvous and docking system. Zarya's computer transferred control of the station to Zvezda's computer soon after docking. Zvezda added sleeping quarters, a toilet, kitchen, CO2 scrubbers, dehumidifier, oxygen generators, exercise equipment, plus data, voice and television communications with mission control. This enabled permanent habitation of the station.[79][80]

The first resident crew, Expedition 1, arrived in November 2000 on Soyuz TM-31. At the end of the first day on the station, astronaut Bill Shepherd requested the use of the radio call sign "Alpha", which he and cosmonaut Krikalev preferred to the more cumbersome "International Space Station".[81] The name "Alpha" had previously been used for the station in the early 1990s,[82] and its use was authorised for the whole of Expedition 1.[83] Shepherd had been advocating the use of a new name to project managers for some time. Referencing a naval tradition in a pre-launch news conference he had said: "For thousands of years, humans have been going to sea in ships. People have designed and built these vessels, launched them with a good feeling that a name will bring good fortune to the crew and success to their voyage."[84] Yuri Semenov, the President of Russian Space Corporation Energia at the time, disapproved of the name "Alpha" as he felt that Mir was the first modular space station, so the names "Beta" or "Mir2" for the ISS would have been more fitting.[83][85][86]

Expedition 1 arrived midway between the flights of STS-92 and STS-97. These two Space Shuttle flights each added segments of the station's Integrated Truss Structure, which provided the station with Ku-band communication for US television, additional attitude support needed for the additional mass of the USOS, and substantial solar arrays supplementing the station's four existing solar arrays.[87]

Over the next two years, the station continued to expand. A Soyuz-U rocket delivered the Pirs docking compartment. The Space Shuttles Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour delivered the Destiny laboratory and Quest airlock, in addition to the station's main robot arm, the Canadarm2, and several more segments of the Integrated Truss Structure.

The expansion schedule was interrupted by the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003 and a resulting hiatus in flights. The Space Shuttle was grounded until 2005 with STS-114 flown by Discovery.[88]

Assembly resumed in 2006 with the arrival of STS-115 with Atlantis, which delivered the station's second set of solar arrays. Several more truss segments and a third set of arrays were delivered on STS-116, STS-117, and STS-118. As a result of the major expansion of the station's power-generating capabilities, more pressurised modules could be accommodated, and the Harmony node and Columbus European laboratory were added. These were soon followed by the first two components of Kib. In March 2009, STS-119 completed the Integrated Truss Structure with the installation of the fourth and final set of solar arrays. The final section of Kib was delivered in July 2009 on STS-127, followed by the Russian Poisk module. The third node, Tranquility, was delivered in February 2010 during STS-130 by the Space Shuttle Endeavour, alongside the Cupola, followed in May 2010 by the penultimate Russian module, Rassvet. Rassvet was delivered by Space Shuttle Atlantis on STS-132 in exchange for the Russian Proton delivery of the US-funded Zarya module in 1998.[89] The last pressurised module of the USOS, Leonardo, was brought to the station in February 2011 on the final flight of Discovery, STS-133.[90] The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer was delivered by Endeavour on STS-134 the same year.[91]

As of June2011[update], the station consisted of 15 pressurised modules and the Integrated Truss Structure. Five modules are still to be launched, including the Nauka with the European Robotic Arm, the Prichal module, and two power modules called NEM-1 and NEM-2.[92] As of May2020[update], Russia's future primary research module Nauka is set to launch in the spring of 2021,[93] along with the European Robotic Arm which will be able to relocate itself to different parts of the Russian modules of the station.[94]

The gross mass of the station changes over time. The total launch mass of the modules on orbit is about 417,289kg (919,965lb) (as of 3September2011[update]).[95] The mass of experiments, spare parts, personal effects, crew, foodstuff, clothing, propellants, water supplies, gas supplies, docked spacecraft, and other items add to the total mass of the station. Hydrogen gas is constantly vented overboard by the oxygen generators.

Technical blueprint of components

The ISS is a third generation[96] modular space station.[97] Modular stations can allow modules to be added to or removed from the existing structure, allowing greater flexibility.

Below is a diagram of major station components. The blue areas are pressurised sections accessible by the crew without using spacesuits. The station's unpressurised superstructure is indicated in red. Other unpressurised components are yellow. The Unity node joins directly to the Destiny laboratory. For clarity, they are shown apart.

Zarya (Russian: , lit.'Dawn'), also known as the Functional Cargo Block or FGB (from the Russian: "- ", lit.'Funktsionalno-gruzovoy blok' or ), is the first module of the ISS to be launched.[98] The FGB provided electrical power, storage, propulsion, and guidance to the ISS during the initial stage of assembly. With the launch and assembly in orbit of other modules with more specialised functionality, Zarya is currently primarily used for storage, both inside the pressurised section and in the externally mounted fuel tanks. The Zarya is a descendant of the TKS spacecraft designed for the Russian Salyut programme. The name Zarya, which means sunrise,[98] was given to the FGB because it signified the dawn of a new era of international cooperation in space. Although it was built by a Russian company, it is owned by the United States.[99]

Zarya was built from December 1994 to January 1998 at the Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center (KhSC) in Moscow.[98]

Zarya was launched on 20November 1998 on a Russian Proton rocket from Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 81 in Kazakhstan to a 400 kilometres (250mi) high orbit with a designed lifetime of at least 15 years. After Zarya reached orbit, STS-88 launched on 4 December 1998 to attach the Unity module.

The Unity connecting module, also known as Node 1, is the first US-built component of the ISS. It connects the Russian and US segments of the station, and is where crew eat meals together.

The module is cylindrical in shape, with six berthing locations (forward, aft, port, starboard, zenith, and nadir) facilitating connections to other modules. Unity measures 4.57 metres (15.0ft) in diameter, is 5.47 metres (17.9ft) long, made of steel, and was built for NASA by Boeing in a manufacturing facility at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. Unity is the first of the three connecting modules; the other two are Harmony and Tranquility.

Unity was carried into orbit as the primary cargo of the Space Shuttle Endeavour on STS-88, the first Space Shuttle mission dedicated to assembly of the station. On 6 December 1998, the STS-88 crew mated the aft berthing port of Unity with the forward hatch of the already orbiting Zarya module. This was the first connection made between two station modules.

Zvezda (Russian: , meaning "star"), Salyut DOS-8, also known as the Zvezda Service Module, is a module of the ISS. It was the third module launched to the station, and provides all of the station's life support systems, some of which are supplemented in the USOS, as well as living quarters for two crew members. It is the structural and functional center of the Russian Orbital Segment, which is the Russian part of the ISS. Crew assemble here to deal with emergencies on the station.[100][101][102]

The basic structural frame of Zvezda, known as "DOS-8", was initially built in the mid-1980s to be the core of the Mir-2 space station. This means that Zvezda is similar in layout to the core module (DOS-7) of the Mir space station. It was in fact labeled as Mir-2 for quite some time in the factory. Its design lineage thus extends back to the original Salyut stations. The space frame was completed in February 1985 and major internal equipment was installed by October 1986.

The rocket used for launch to the ISS carried advertising; it was emblazoned with the logo of Pizza Hut restaurants,[103][104][105] for which they are reported to have paid more than US$1 million.[106] The money helped support Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center and the Russian advertising agencies that orchestrated the event.[107]

On 26 July 2000, Zvezda became the third component of the ISS when it docked at the aft port of Zarya. (U.S. Unity module had already been attached to the Zarya.) Later in July, the computers aboard Zarya handed over ISS commanding functions to computers on Zvezda.[108]

The Destiny module, also known as the U.S. Lab, is the primary operating facility for U.S. research payloads aboard the International Space Station (ISS).[109][110] It was berthed to the Unity module and activated over a period of five days in February 2001.[111] Destiny is NASA's first permanent operating orbital research station since Skylab was vacated in February 1974.

The Boeing Company began construction of the 14.5-tonne (32,000lb) research laboratory in 1995 at the Michoud Assembly Facility and then the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama.[109] Destiny was shipped to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida in 1998, and was turned over to NASA for pre-launch preparations in August 2000. It launched on 7February 2001 aboard the Space Shuttle Atlantis on STS-98.[111]

The Quest Joint Airlock, previously known as the Joint Airlock Module, is the primary airlock for the ISS. Quest was designed to host spacewalks with both Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) spacesuits and Orlan space suits. The airlock was launched on STS-104 on 14July 2001. Before Quest was attached, Russian spacewalks using Orlan suits could only be done from the Zvezda service module, and American spacewalks using EMUs were only possible when a Space Shuttle was docked. The arrival of Pirs docking compartment on 16September 2001 provided another airlock from which Orlan spacewalks can be conducted.[citation needed]

The Pirs module attached to the ISS.

Poisk after arriving at the ISS on 12 November 2009.

Pirs (Russian: , lit.'pier') and Poisk (Russian: , lit.'search') are Russian airlock modules, each having two identical hatches. An outward-opening hatch on the Mir space station failed after it swung open too fast after unlatching, because of a small amount of air pressure remaining in the airlock.[112] All EVA hatches on the ISS open inwards and are pressure-sealing. Pirs was used to store, service, and refurbish Russian Orlan suits and provided contingency entry for crew using the slightly bulkier American suits. The outermost docking ports on both airlocks allow docking of Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, and the automatic transfer of propellants to and from storage on the ROS.[113]

Pirs was launched on 14September 2001, as ISS Assembly Mission 4R, on a Russian Soyuz-U rocket, using a modified Progress spacecraft, Progress M-SO1, as an upper stage. Poisk was launched on 10November 2009[114][115] attached to a modified Progress spacecraft, called Progress M-MIM2, on a Soyuz-U rocket from Launch Pad 1 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan.

Harmony, also known as Node 2, is the "utility hub" of the ISS. It connects the laboratory modules of the United States, Europe and Japan, as well as providing electrical power and electronic data. Sleeping cabins for four of the six crew are housed here.[116]

Harmony was successfully launched into space aboard Space Shuttle flight STS-120 on 23October 2007.[117][118] After temporarily being attached to the port side of the Unity,[119] it was moved to its permanent location on the forward end of the Destiny laboratory on 14November 2007.[120] Harmony added 2,666 cubic feet (75.5m3) to the station's living volume, an increase of almost 20 percent, from 15,000cuft (420m3) to 17,666cuft (500.2m3). Its successful installation meant that from NASA's perspective, the station was "U.S. Core Complete".

Tranquility, also known as Node 3, is a module of the ISS. It contains environmental control systems, life support systems, a toilet, exercise equipment, and an observation cupola.

ESA and the Italian Space Agency had Tranquility built by Thales Alenia Space. A ceremony on 20November 2009 transferred ownership of the module to NASA.[121] On 8February 2010, NASA launched the module on the Space Shuttle's STS-130 mission.

Columbus is a science laboratory that is part of the ISS and is the largest single contribution to the ISS made by the European Space Agency (ESA).

The Columbus laboratory was flown to the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida in an Airbus Beluga. It was launched aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis on 7February 2008 on flight STS-122. It is designed for ten years of operation. The module is controlled by the Columbus Control Centre, located at the German Space Operations Centre, part of the German Aerospace Center in Oberpfaffenhofen near Munich, Germany.

The European Space Agency has spent 1.4billion (about US$2 billion) on building Columbus, including the experiments that will orbit in Columbus and the ground control infrastructure necessary to operate the experiments.[122]

The Japanese Experiment Module (JEM), nicknamed Kibo (, Kib, Hope), is a Japanese science module for the ISS developed by JAXA. It is the largest single ISS module, and is attached to the Harmony module. The first two pieces of the module were launched on Space Shuttle missions STS-123 and STS-124. The third and final components were launched on STS-127.[123]

Experiment Logistics Module

Experiment Logistics Module

Remote Manipulator System

The Cupola is an ESA-built observatory module of the ISS. Its name derives from the Italian word cupola, which means "dome". Its seven windows are used to conduct experiments, dockings and observations of Earth. It was launched aboard Space Shuttle mission STS-130 on 8February 2010 and attached to the Tranquility (Node 3) module. With the Cupola attached, ISS assembly reached 85 percent completion. The Cupola's central window has a diameter of 80cm (31in).[124]

Rassvet (Russian: ; lit. "dawn"), also known as the Mini-Research Module 1 (MRM-1) (Russian: , 1) and formerly known as the Docking Cargo Module (DCM), is a component of the ISS. The module's design is similar to the Mir Docking Module launched on STS-74 in 1995. Rassvet is primarily used for cargo storage and as a docking port for visiting spacecraft. It was flown to the ISS aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis on the STS-132 mission on 14May 2010,[125] and was connected to the ISS on 18 May.[126] The hatch connecting Rassvet with the ISS was first opened on 20 May.[127] On 28June 2010, the Soyuz TMA-19 spacecraft performed the first docking with the module.[128]

The Leonardo Permanent Multipurpose Module (PMM) is a module of the ISS. It was flown into space aboard the Space Shuttle on STS-133 on 24February 2011 and installed on 1March. Leonardo is primarily used for storage of spares, supplies and waste on the ISS, which was until then stored in many different places within the space station. The Leonardo PMM was a Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) before 2011, but was modified into its current configuration. It was formerly one of three MPLM used for bringing cargo to and from the ISS with the Space Shuttle. The module was named for Italian polymath Leonardo da Vinci.

The Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) is an experimental expandable space station module developed by Bigelow Aerospace, under contract to NASA, for testing as a temporary module on the ISS from 2016 to at least 2020. It arrived at the ISS on 10April 2016,[129] was berthed to the station on 16April, and was expanded and pressurised on 28May 2016.

The International Docking Adapter (IDA) is a spacecraft docking system adapter developed to convert APAS-95 to the NASA Docking System (NDS)/International Docking System Standard (IDSS). An IDA is placed on each of the ISS' two open Pressurised Mating Adapters (PMAs), both of which are connected to the Harmony module.

IDA-1 was lost during the launch failure of SpaceX CRS-7 on 28June 2015.[130][131][132]

IDA-2 was launched on SpaceX CRS-9 on 18July 2016.[133] It was attached and connected to PMA-2 during a spacewalk on 19August 2016.[134] First docking was achieved with the arrival of Crew Dragon Demo-1 on 3March 2019.[135]

IDA-3 was launched on the SpaceX CRS-18 mission in July 2019.[136] IDA-3 is constructed mostly from spare parts to speed construction.[137] It was attached and connected to PMA-3 during a spacewalk on 21August 2019.[138]

The ISS has a large number of external components that do not require pressurisation. The largest of these is the Integrated Truss Structure (ITS), to which the station's main solar arrays and thermal radiators are mounted.[139] The ITS consists of ten separate segments forming a structure 108.5 metres (356ft) long.[3]

The station was intended to have several smaller external components, such as six robotic arms, three External Stowage Platforms (ESPs) and four ExPRESS Logistics Carriers (ELCs).[140][141] While these platforms allow experiments (including MISSE, the STP-H3 and the Robotic Refueling Mission) to be deployed and conducted in the vacuum of space by providing electricity and processing experimental data locally, their primary function is to store spare Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs). ORUs are parts that can be replaced when they fail or pass their design life, including pumps, storage tanks, antennas, and battery units. Such units are replaced either by astronauts during EVA or by robotic arms.[142] Several shuttle missions were dedicated to the delivery of ORUs, including STS-129,[143] STS-133[144] and STS-134.[145] As of January2011[update], only one other mode of transportation of ORUs had been utilisedthe Japanese cargo vessel HTV-2which delivered an FHRC and CTC-2 via its Exposed Pallet (EP).[146][needs update]

There are also smaller exposure facilities mounted directly to laboratory modules; the Kib Exposed Facility serves as an external "porch" for the Kib complex,[147] and a facility on the European Columbus laboratory provides power and data connections for experiments such as the European Technology Exposure Facility[148][149] and the Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space.[150] A remote sensing instrument, SAGE III-ISS, was delivered to the station in February 2017 aboard CRS-10,[151] and the NICER experiment was delivered aboard CRS-11 in June 2017.[152] The largest scientific payload externally mounted to the ISS is the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), a particle physics experiment launched on STS-134 in May 2011, and mounted externally on the ITS. The AMS measures cosmic rays to look for evidence of dark matter and antimatter.[153][154]

The commercial Bartolomeo External Payload Hosting Platform, manufactured by Airbus, was launched on 6 March 2020 aboard CRS-20 and attached to the European Columbus module. It will provide an additional 12 external payload slots, supplementing the eight on the ExPRESS Logistics Carriers, ten on Kib, and four on Columbus. The system is designed to be robotically serviced and will require no astronaut intervention. It is named after Christopher Columbus's younger brother.[155][156][157]

The Integrated Truss Structure serves as a base for the station's primary remote manipulator system, called the Mobile Servicing System (MSS), which is composed of three main components. Canadarm2, the largest robotic arm on the ISS, has a mass of 1,800 kilograms (4,000lb) and is used to dock and manipulate spacecraft and modules on the USOS, hold crew members and equipment in place during EVAs and move Dextre around to perform tasks.[158] Dextre is a 1,560kg (3,440lb) robotic manipulator with two arms, a rotating torso and has power tools, lights and video for replacing orbital replacement units (ORUs) and performing other tasks requiring fine control.[159] The Mobile Base System (MBS) is a platform which rides on rails along the length of the station's main truss. It serves as a mobile base for Canadarm2 and Dextre, allowing the robotic arms to reach all parts of the USOS.[160] To gain access to the Russian Segment a grapple fixture was added to Zarya on STS-134, so that Canadarm2 can inchworm itself onto the ROS.[161] Also installed during STS-134 was the 15m (50ft) Orbiter Boom Sensor System (OBSS), which had been used to inspect heat shield tiles on Space Shuttle missions and can be used on station to increase the reach of the MSS.[161] Staff on Earth or the station can operate the MSS components via remote control, performing work outside the station without space walks.

Japan's Remote Manipulator System, which services the Kib Exposed Facility,[162] was launched on STS-124 and is attached to the Kib Pressurised Module.[163] The arm is similar to the Space Shuttle arm as it is permanently attached at one end and has a latching end effector for standard grapple fixtures at the other.

The European Robotic Arm, which will service the Russian Orbital Segment, will be launched alongside the Multipurpose Laboratory Module in 2020.[164] The ROS does not require spacecraft or modules to be manipulated, as all spacecraft and modules dock automatically and may be discarded the same way. Crew use the two Strela (Russian: ; lit. Arrow) cargo cranes during EVAs for moving crew and equipment around the ROS. Each Strela crane has a mass of 45kg (99lb).

Nauka (Russian: ; lit. Science), also known as the Multipurpose Laboratory Module (MLM), (Russian: , or ), is a component of the ISS which has not yet been launched into space. The MLM is funded by the Roscosmos State Corporation. In the original ISS plans, Nauka was to use the location of the Docking and Stowage Module. Later, the DSM was replaced by the Rassvet module and it was moved to Zarya's nadir port. Planners anticipate Nauka will dock at Zvezda's nadir port, replacing Pirs.[165]

The launch of Nauka, initially planned for 2007, has been repeatedly delayed for various reasons. As of May2020[update], the launch to the ISS is assigned to no earlier than spring 2021.[93] After this date, the warranties of some of Nauka's systems will expire.

Prichal, also known as Uzlovoy Module or UM (Russian: "", Nodal Module Berth),[166] is a 4-tonne (8,800lb)[167] ball-shaped module that will allow docking of two scientific and power modules during the final stage of the station assembly, and provide the Russian segment additional docking ports to receive Soyuz MS and Progress MS spacecraft. UM is due to be launched in the third quarter of 2021.[168] It will be integrated with a special version of the Progress cargo ship and launched by a standard Soyuz rocket, docking to the nadir port of the Nauka module. One port is equipped with an active hybrid docking port, which enables docking with the MLM module. The remaining five ports are passive hybrids, enabling docking of Soyuz and Progress vehicles, as well as heavier modules and future spacecraft with modified docking systems. The node module was intended to serve as the only permanent element of the cancelled OPSEK.[168][169]

Science Power Module 1 (SPM-1, also known as NEM-1) and Science Power Module 2 (SPM-2, also known as NEM-2) are modules planned to arrive at the ISS not earlier than 2024.[170] It is going to dock to the Prichal module, which is planned to be attached to the Nauka module.[citation needed] If Nauka is cancelled, then the Prichal, SPM-1, and SPM-2 would dock at the zenith port of Zvezda. SPM-1 and SPM-2 would also be required components for the OPSEK space station.[171]

The NanoRacks Bishop Airlock Module is a commercially-funded airlock module intended to be launched to the ISS on SpaceX CRS-21 in August 2020.[172][173] The module is being built by NanoRacks, Thales Alenia Space, and Boeing.[174] It will be used to deploy CubeSats, small satellites, and other external payloads for NASA, CASIS, and other commercial and governmental customers.[175]

In January 2020, NASA awarded Axiom Space a contract to build a commercial module for the space station with it launching in 2024. The contract is under the NextSTEP2 program. NASA said it will begin negotiations with Axiom on a firm-fixed-price contract to build and deliver the module, which will attach to the forward port on space station's Harmony module, or Node 2. Although NASA has only commissioned one module, Axiom plans to build an entire segment which would consist of five modules. These modules would include a node module, an orbital research and manufacturing facility, a crew habitat, and a "large-windowed Earth observatory". The Axiom segment would greatly increase the capabilities and value of the station and allow for larger crews and private spaceflight by other organisations. Axiom plans to turn its segment into its own space station once the ISS is decommissioned and would let it act as a successor to the station.[176][177][178]

Several modules planned for the station were cancelled over the course of the ISS programme. Reasons include budgetary constraints, the modules becoming unnecessary, and station redesigns after the 2003 Columbia disaster. The US Centrifuge Accommodations Module would have hosted science experiments in varying levels of artificial gravity.[179] The US Habitation Module would have served as the station's living quarters. Instead, the living quarters are now spread throughout the station.[180] The US Interim Control Module and ISS Propulsion Module would have replaced the functions of Zvezda in case of a launch failure.[181] Two Russian Research Modules were planned for scientific research.[182] They would have docked to a Russian Universal Docking Module.[183] The Russian Science Power Platform would have supplied power to the Russian Orbital Segment independent of the ITS solar arrays.

The critical systems are the atmosphere control system, the water supply system, the food supply facilities, the sanitation and hygiene equipment, and fire detection and suppression equipment. The Russian Orbital Segment's life support systems are contained in the Zvezda service module. Some of these systems are supplemented by equipment in the USOS. The Nauka laboratory has a complete set of life support systems.

The atmosphere on board the ISS is similar to the Earth's.[184] Normal air pressure on the ISS is 101.3kPa (14.69psi);[185] the same as at sea level on Earth. An Earth-like atmosphere offers benefits for crew comfort, and is much safer than a pure oxygen atmosphere, because of the increased risk of a fire such as that responsible for the deaths of the Apollo 1 crew.[186] Earth-like atmospheric conditions have been maintained on all Russian and Soviet spacecraft.[187]

The Elektron system aboard Zvezda and a similar system in Destiny generate oxygen aboard the station.[188] The crew has a backup option in the form of bottled oxygen and Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation (SFOG) canisters, a chemical oxygen generator system.[189] Carbon dioxide is removed from the air by the Vozdukh system in Zvezda. Other by-products of human metabolism, such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat, are removed by activated charcoal filters.[189]

Read more from the original source:

International Space Station - Wikipedia