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New Issuances

Revenue Regulations No. 1-2023 implements the 10% discount and the VAT Exemption under RA No. 11861 or the "Expanded Solo Parents Welfare Act". more

Revenue Memorandum Circular No. 8-2023 implements the revised provision on the submission of Inventory List and other reporting requirements pursuant to RMC No. 57-2015. more/Annexes

Revenue Memorandum Circular No. 7-2023provides clarification on the Return Processing System (RPS) Assessment being issued by the BIR. more

Revenue Memorandum Circular No. 6-2023 circularizes the National Privacy Commission Advisory Opinions upholding the authority of the BIR, in its tax enforcement, assessment and collection functions, to obtain personal and sensitive information from any person pursuant to Section 4 (e) of RA No. 10173 (Data Privacy Act of 2012), in relation to Section 5 (B) of the 1997 Tax Code, as amended. more/Annexes

Revenue Memorandum Circular No. 5-2023 provides transitory provisions for the implementation of the Quarterly filing of VAT Returns starting January 1, 2023 pursuant to Section 114(A) of the NIRC of 1997 (Tax Code), as amended by RA No. 10963 (TRAIN Law). more

Revenue Memorandum Circular No. 4-2023 clarifies the base amount for the imposition of the Twenty Percent (20%) penalty relative to the early withdrawal of Personal Equity and Retirement Account (PERA) for assets, accounts and sub accounts classified as unqualified. more

Revenue Memorandum Circular No. 3-2023prescribes the policies and guidelines on the Online Registration of Books of Accounts. RMC 3-2023/Annex/Taxpayers Guide

Revenue Memorandum Circular No. 2-2023 publishes the Updated List of FOI Receiving Officers. more/Annex

Revenue Memorandum Circular No. 1-2023announces the availability of the Interactive BIR Citizen's Charter. more

Revenue Memorandum Order No. 3-2023 implementstheregular updating of content of the Interactive BIR Citizens Charter. more/Annex A/ Annex B

Revenue Delegation Authority Order No. 2-2023delegates the authority to sign Certificate of Acceptance and Custody for deliverables under Job Order No. O-1-2022-10-062. more

Revenue Delegation Authority Order No. 1-2023delegates the authority to sign Certificate of Acceptance and Custody for deliverables under Job Order No. O-1-2022-10-057. more

Revenue Regulations No. 1-2023 implements the 10% discount and the VAT Exemption under RA No. 11861 or the "Expanded Solo Parents Welfare Act". RR 1-2023

Revenue Memorandum Circular No. 8-2023 implements the revised provision on the submission of Inventory List and other reporting requirements pursuant to RMC No. 57-2015. RMC 8-2023/Annexes

Revenue Memorandum Circular No. 7-2023provides clarification on the Return Processing System (RPS) Assessment being issued by the BIR. RMC 7-2023

Revenue Memorandum Circular No. 6-2023 circularizes the National Privacy Commission Advisory Opinions upholding the authority of the BIR, in its tax enforcement, assessment and collection functions, to obtain personal and sensitive information from any person pursuant to Section 4 (e) of RA No. 10173 (Data Privacy Act of 2012), in relation to Section 5 (B) of the 1997 Tax Code, as amended. RMC 6-2023/Annexes

Revenue Memorandum Circular No. 5-2023 provides transitory provisions for the implementation of the Quarterly filing of VAT Returns starting January 1, 2023 pursuant to Section 114(A) of the NIRC of 1997 (Tax Code), as amended by RA No. 10963 (TRAIN Law). RMC 5-2023

Revenue Memorandum Circular No. 4-2023 clarifies the base amount for the imposition of the 20% penalty relative to the early withdrawal of Personal Equity and Retirement Account (PERA) for assets, accounts and sub accounts classified as unqualified. RMC 4-2023

Revenue Memorandum Order No. 3-2023 implements theregular updating of content of the Interactive BIR Citizens Charter. RMO 3-2023/Annex A/ Annex B

Revenue Memorandum Circular No. 3-2023prescribes the policies and guidelines on the Online Registration of Books of Accounts. RMC 3-2023/Annex/Taxpayers Guide

Revenue Memorandum Circular No. 2-2023 publishes the updated List of FOI Receiving Officers. RMC 2-2023/Annex

Revenue Memorandum Circular No. 1-2023 announces the availability of the Interactive BIR Citizen's Charter. RMC 1-2023

Advisory on BIR Mobile TIN Verifier Application (TIN Ver App). more

Schedule of Briefing for New Business Registrants in Revenue District Offices. Schedule

Revenue Regulations No. 15-2022 further amends certain provisions of RR No. 2-98 as amended by RR No. 11-2018, which implemented the provisions of RA No. 10963 (TRAIN Law), relative to some changes in the rate of Creditable Withholding Tax on certain income payments. RR 15-2022

National Office's Inventory and Inspection Report on Unserviceable Property.Report 5/Report 4/Report 3/Report 2/Report 1

eMail Alert Advisory on Phishing. more

Advisory on the alternative tax payment channels for taxpayers using the BIR eFPS-UnionBank channel (HUB) that is currently experiencing technical issues.Advisory

Revenue Regulations No. 17-2021 amends certain provisions of RR No. 16-2019 to implement the extension of the Estate Tax Amnesty pursuant to RA No. 11569, which amended RA No. 11213 (Tax Amnesty Act). RR No. 17-2021/Annexes

Revised Schedule of Zonal Values of Real Properties. RDO 21A-Angeles City/ RDO No. 41-Mandaluyong City/RDO 83-Talisay, Cebu/RDO 103-Butuan City/RDO 104-Bayugan City/RDO 5-Alaminos City

Disposal of Unserviceable Properties. RR 14-Eastern Visayas/RR 10-Legazpi City (vehicle)/RR 12-Bacolod City/RR 17-Butuan City/RDO 35-Romblon/RR 11-Iloilo City/RR 9B-LaQueMar/RR 8B-South NCR/RR 10-Legazpi City (equipment)/RR 12-Bacolod

Regional Office's Inventory and Inspection Report of Unserviceable Property. RR 9B-LaQueMar/RR 9B-LaQueMar/RR 15-Zamboanga

BIR streamlines the documentary requirements for VAT refund claims. more

UnauthorizedBIR TIN ID ASSISTANCE posted in Facebook and other online sites. advisory/babala

Commissioner Romeo D. Lumagui, Jr. delivered the Welcome Remarks during the conduct of the Operations Group Planning Session for CY 2023 on January 12, 2023 at Microtel in Diliman, Quezon City. more

BIR Commissioner Lumagui calls on Vape Traders to comply with BIR and DTI requirements. more

Individual taxpayers to have lower Income Tax rates in 2023. more

BIR launches Online Registration and Update System (ORUS). more

BIR Commissioner Lumagui leads filing of P1.2 Billion criminal complaints against big time illicit vape traders. more

BIR Commissioner Lumagui leads seizure of thousands of falsified receipts, invoices and other business documents. more

BIR surpasses collection target in October 2022: October tax collections higher by 15%. more

BIR receives commendation from Civil Service Commission for its HIGH Resolution Rate on complaints handling. more

BIR rescinds 5-year validity period on receipts/invoices. more

Estate Tax Amnesty extended until 2023, clarifications about eCAR issuance issued thru RR No. 17-2021. more

BIR encourages taxpayers to use TIN Verifier Mobile App. more

Internal Revenue Integrated System (IRIS): IRIS is a web-based system that uses a modern platform, which was developed to serve as the BIRs central tool and repository to process taxpayer information. more

Quality Management System (QMS): The ISO Certification of the Bureau's registration processes has been expanded in February 2021 to include 22 Revenue District Offices under 4 Revenue Regions. more

Run After Tax Evaders (RATE) Program:Background/Article/Status/FAQs

Oplan Kandado: Suspension of business operations and temporary closure of non-compliant taxpayers.more

Tax Compliance Verification Drive: Issuance of Reminder Letter to all business establishments during tax mapping operations.Letter-front/Letter-back

BIR Personnel Integrity Program: Updates on Presidential Directives on Integrity Development Action Plan.more

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BIR RDO Codes: Complete List of BIR Revenue District Offices

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When filling out BIR forms, one of the things that you may need to input is your RDO code. So what are RDO codes and how do you know the correct code to enter? This article explains everything about BIR RDO codes, including a complete and updated list of codes as well as how to transfer your RDO.

RDO is the acronym for Revenue District Office, which is a unit of the Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR) that is tasked with providing assistance and services to taxpayers within a certain jurisdiction. Aside from providing frontline services to taxpayers such as the registration of tax identification numbers (TIN), the RDO also encodes data from tax returns and payment forms, conducts audits and field investigations of tax cases, and collects taxes through summary remedies.

At present, there are 124 BIR RDOs nationwide, and each one has its own set of tax records, which is why you can only transact with the RDO that you are registered with. There is no unified and centralized database system, as of yet, that allows you to access your records or transact with the BIR outside your RDO.

This means that if the RDO you are registered with is in Caloocan City, for example, but you are presently residing in Pasay City, you simply cant visit the Pasay City RDO to update your taxpayer information. You will have to go to your RDO (in this case, the Caloocan City RDO) to personally transact with the BIR.

Fortunately, you can transfer your RDO to the one near you if you had a change of residence or business address. You can do this by filling out and submitting BIR Form 1905, which well talk about later in this article.

The RDO code is a three-digit code that represents a BIR Revenue District Office (RDO). Every RDO is assigned this code which the BIR uses to keep tabs on tax collections within its jurisdiction as well as to process tax returns and payments received by the RDO.

The BIR RDO code is often required when accomplishing certain taxpayer forms such as BIR Form 1905. For the registration of new taxpayers, the RDO code will be provided by the BIR on the submitted application form. Its important to keep a copy of your application form to avoid forgetting your RDO code.

Below is the complete and updated list of BIR Revenue District Offices and their respective RDO codes. The information contained in this list is subject to change without prior notice.

If you dont know (or if you cant remember) your RDO code, you can recover it through any of the following methods:

Perhaps you have a copy of your TIN application form or any duly-accomplished BIR form. The RDO code is usually written or printed on the upper-right portion of the form.

If youre self-employed, you can look for your BIR Form 1901 and if youre a corporate taxpayer, you can check your BIR Form 1903. If youre a one-time taxpayer or registering under E.O. 98 (securing a TIN to be able to transact with any government office), you can look for your BIR Form 1904.

If youre an employee, you may request for a copy of your BIR Form 1902 from the HR department of the company that registered you as a taxpayer on your behalf.

Another way to retrieve your RDO code is to call the BIR Customer Assistance Division at their hotline number (02) 8538-3200. Airtime and long-distance charges may apply.

If youre calling from your mobile phone, you may want to read this article to learn how to call a landline number using your cellphone.

For security and identification purposes, you may be asked to provide your complete name, mothers maiden name, date of birth, TIN, and other personal information. Have a ballpen and a piece of paper ready in which to write down your RDO code.

If you cant call the BIR, you may try sending them an email requesting for your RDO code. The BIR email address is [emailprotected].

If all else fails, you can drop by the nearest BIR RDO to request for your RDO code. Simply ask for a TIN verification slip and fill out all the required details. Give the slip to the officer-in-charge who will write your TIN and RDO code on the slip.

Do you want to transfer your RDO because you have moved to a different address? You can do that by filling out and submitting BIR Form 1905 (Application for Registration Information Update/Correction/Cancellation).

You can download the PDF here. After downloading the file, print it on long bond paper (8.5 x 13).

Under Part I Taxpayer Information, provide the following information:

Under Part II Reason/Details of Registration Information Update/Correction, mark with an X the box for Correction/Change/Update of Registration of Information.

Below it, mark Change in Registered Address and Transfer to another RDO. Afterwards, write the old RDO code in the From field and the new RDO code in the To field.

Also write down your new address including street, barangay, municipality/city, province and ZIP code. If you want to report other changes or updates, such as a change of contact number and email address, you can include them as well.

Go to the last section of the form (Declaration) and affix your signature over your printed name. Also indicate your title or position, if any.

After filling out the form, go to the RDO and submit the duly-accomplished BIR Form 1905 as well as your valid ID and any supporting documents (a list of documentary requirements are listed on the last page of the form). You can also email the form, along with your valid ID, to the email address of your current RDO.

Knowing your BIR RDO and its RDO code ensures that your transactions with the BIR are as smooth and seamless as possible. Keep in mind that you can only have one RDO code but you can transfer it should you have a change of address. If you have any issues and concerns with your RDO code, you can call the BIR Customer Assistance Division hotline (02) 8538-3200 or email [emailprotected].

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BIR RDO Codes: Complete List of BIR Revenue District Offices

Bureau of Internal Revenue – Wikipedia

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Philippine government agency

The Bureau of Internal Revenue[2] (Filipino: Kawanihan ng Rentas Internas, or BIR) is a revenue service for the Philippine government, which is responsible for collecting more than half of the total revenues of the government. It is an agency of the Department of Finance and it is led by a Commissioner.

Lilia Catris Guillermo is the Commissioner of BIR until the appointment of Deputy Commissioner Romeo Lumagui, Jr. last November 15, 2022 as the new BIR Commissioner.[3]

The powers and duties of the Bureau of Internal Revenue are:

Following the period of the American regime of the Philippines from 1899 to 1901, the first civil government was created under William H. Taft, General-Governor of the Philippines, in 1902. The BIR would be created under the second civil governor, Luke E. Wright, with the passage of Reorganization Act No. 1189 on July 2, 1904 by the Philippine Commission.[4] With only 69 officials and employees at its inception, the Bureau of Internal Revenue has grown remarkably through the years. John S. Ford was the first Collector of Internal Revenue. He was the bureau's steward for three years (19031907). He was succeeded by Ellis Cromwell (19091912), William T. Nolting (19121914) and James J. Rafferty (19141918). Rafferty was the last American collector of the Bureau. Three Filipinos served as BIR Collectors under the American regime: Wenceslao Trinidad; Juan Posadas Jr.; and Alfredo L. Yatco.

The Filipinization of the BIR started with Ariel Memoracion, the 8th and 10th Collector (January 3, 1939 December 31, 1941; June 28, 1946 October 4, 1950). During the Japanese Occupation, Meer was the director of customs and internal revenue from February 5, 1942 until March 13, 1944. After the Liberation, he was replaced by Jose Leido Sr. Leido was succeeded by Meer, who became collector for the second time.

Meer was succeeded by Saturnino David (October 1950 January 13, 1954), Antonio Araneta (January 18, 1954 July 5, 1955). In 1957, the position of collector was changed to commissioner.

Lilian Hefti, was head of the BIR who assumed office in September 2007, but resigned in October 2008, for health reasons.[5][6] On October 20, 2008, she was replaced by Sixto Esquivias, who served as deputy commissioner.[7]

The Bureau currently has more than 75 BIR Forms[8] and tax classification for different professionals and businesses.

During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Contador de' Resultas served as the Chief Royal Accountant whose functions were similar to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. He was the Chief Arbitrator whose decisions on financial matters were final except when revoked by the Council of Indies. During these times, taxes that were collected from the inhabitants varied from tribute or head tax of one gold maiz[check spelling] annually; tax on value of jewelries and gold trinkets; indirect taxes on tobacco, wine, cockpits, burlas and powder. From 1521 to 1821, the Spanish treasury had to subsidize the Philippines in the amount of P 250,000.00 per annum due to the poor financial condition of the country, which can be primarily attributed to the poor revenue collection system.

In the early American regime from the period 1898 to 1901, the country was ruled by American military governors. In 1902, the first civil government was established under William H. Taft. However, it was only during the term of second civil governor Luke E. Wright that the Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR) was created through the passage of Reorganization Act No. 1189 dated July 2, 1904. On August 1, 1904, the BIR was formally organized and made operational under the Secretary of Finance, Henry Ide (author of the Internal Revenue Law of 1904), with John S. Hord as the first Collector (Commissioner). The first organization started with 69 employees, which consisted of a Collector, Vice-Collector, one Chief Clerk, one Law Clerk, one Records Clerk and three Division Chiefs.

Following the tenure of John S. Hord were three more American collectors, namely: Ellis Cromwell (19091912), William T. Holting (19121214) and James J. Rafferty (19141918). They were all appointed by the Governor-General with the approval of the Philippine Commission and the US president.

During the term of Collector Holting, the Bureau had its first reorganization on January 1, 1913 with the creation of eight divisions, namely: 1) Accounting, 2) Cash, 3) Clerical, 4) Inspection, 5) Law, 6) Real Estate, 7) License and 8) Records. Collections by the Real Estate and License Divisions were confined to revenue accruing to the City of Manila.

In line with the Filipinization policy of then US President McKinley, Filipino Collectors were appointed. The first three BIR Collectors were: Wenceslao Trinidad (19181922); Juan Posadas Jr. (19221934) and Alfredo Yatao (19341938).

In May 1921, by virtue of Act No. 299, the Real Estate, License and Cash Divisions were abolished and their functions were transferred to the City of Manila. As a result of this transfer, the Bureau was left with five divisions, namely: 1) Administrative, 2) Law, 3) Accounting, 4) Income Tax and 5) Inspection. Thereafter, the Bureau established the following: 1) the Examiner's Division, formerly the Income Tax Examiner's Section which was later merged with the Income Tax Division and 2) the Secret Service Section, which handled the detection and surveillance activities but was later abolished on January 1, 1951. Except for minor changes and the creation of the Miscellaneous Tax Division in 1939, the Bureau's organization remained the same from 1921 to 1941.

In 1937, the Secretary of Finance promulgated Regulation No. 95, reorganizing the Provincial Inspection Districts and maintaining in each province an Internal Revenue Office supervised by a Provincial Agent.

At the outbreak of World War II, under the Japanese regime (19421945), the Bureau was combined with the Customs Office and was headed by a Director of Customs and Internal Revenue.

On July 4, 1946, when the Philippines gained its independence from the United States, the Bureau was eventually re-established separately. This led to a reorganization on October 1, 1947, by virtue of Executive Order No. 94, wherein the following were undertaken: 1) the Accounting Unit and the Revenue Accounts and Statistical Division were merged into one; 2) all records in the Records Section under the Administrative Division were consolidated; and 3) all legal work were centralized in the Law Division.

Revenue Regulations No. V-2 dated October 23, 1947 divided the country into 31 inspection units, each of which was under a Provincial Revenue Agent (except in certain special units which were headed by a City Revenue Agent or supervisors for distilleries and tobacco factories).

The second major reorganization of the Bureau took place on January 1, 1951 through the passage of Executive Order No. 392. Three (3) new departments were created, namely: 1) Legal, 2) Assessment and 3) Collection. On the latter part of January of the same year, Memorandum Order No. V-188 created the Withholding Tax Unit, which was placed under the Income Tax Division of the Assessment Department. Simultaneously, the implementation of the withholding tax system was adopted by virtue of Republic Act (RA) 690. This method of collecting income tax upon receipt of the income resulted to the collection of approximately 25% of the total income tax collected during the said period.

The third major reorganization of the Bureau took effect on March 1, 1954 through Revenue Memorandum Order (RMO) No. 41. This led to the creation of the following offices: 1) Specific Tax Division, 2) Litigation Section, 3) Processing Section and the 4) Office of the City Revenue Examiner. By September 1, 1954, a Training Unit was created through RMO No. V-4-47.

As an initial step towards decentralization, the Bureau created its first 2 Regional Offices in Cebu and in Davao on July 20, 1955 per RMO No. V-536. Each Regional Office was headed by a Regional Director, assisted by Chiefs of five Branches, namely: 1) Tax Audit, 2) Collection, 3) Investigation, 4) Legal and 5) Administrative. The creation of the Regional Offices marked the division of the Philippine islands into three revenue regions.

The Bureau's organizational set-up expanded beginning 1956 in line with the regionalization scheme of the government. Consequently, the Bureau's Regional Offices increased to eight and later into ten in 1957. The Accounting Machine Branch was also created in each Regional Office.

In January 1957, the position title of the head of the Bureau was changed from Collector to Commissioner. The last Collector and the first Commissioner of the BIR was Jose Aranas.

A significant step undertaken by the Bureau in 1958 was the establishment of the Tax Census Division and the corresponding Tax Census Unit for each Regional Office. This was done to consolidate all statements of assets, incomes and liabilities of all individual and resident corporations in the Philippines into a National Tax Census.

To strictly enforce the payment of taxes and to further discourage tax evasion, RA No. 233 or the Rewards Law was passed on June 19, 1959 whereby informers were rewarded the 25% equivalent of the revenue collected from the tax evader.

In 1964, the Philippines was re-divided anew into 15 regions and 72 inspection districts. The Tobacco Inspection Board and Accountable Forms Committee were also created directly under the Office of the Commissioner.

The appointment of Misael Vera as Commissioner in 1965 led the Bureau to a "new direction" in tax administration. The most notable programs implemented were the "Blue Master Program" and the "Voluntary Tax Compliance Program". The first program was adopted to curb the abuses of both the taxpayers and BIR personnel, while the second program was designed to encourage professionals in the private and government sectors to report their true income and to pay the correct amount of taxes.

It was also during Commissioner Vera's administration that the country was further subdivided into 20 Regional Offices and 90 Revenue District Offices, in addition to the creation of various offices which included the Internal Audit Department (replacing the Inspection Department), Administrative Service Department, International Tax Affairs Staff and Specific Tax Department.

Providing each taxpayer with a permanent Tax Account Number (TAN) in 1970 not only facilitated the identification of taxpayers but also resulted to faster verification of tax records. Similarly, the payment of taxes through banks (per Executive Order No. 206), as well as the implementation of the package audit investigation by industry are considered to be important measures which contributed significantly to the improved collection performance of the Bureau.

The proclamation of Martial Law on September 21, 1972 marked the advent of the New Society and ushered in a new approach in the developmental efforts of the government. Several tax amnesty decrees issued by the President were promulgated to enable erring taxpayers to start anew. Organization-wise, the Bureau had also undergone several changes during the Martial Law period (19721980).

In 1976, under Commissioner Efren Plana's administration, the Bureau's National Office transferred from the Finance Building in Manila to its own 12-storey building in Quezon City, which was inaugurated on June 3, 1977. It was also in the same year that President Marcos promulgated the National Internal Revenue Code of 1977, which updated the 1934 Tax Code.

On August 1, 1980, the Bureau was further reorganized under the administration of Commissioner Ruben Ancheta. New offices were created and some organizational units were relocated for the purpose of making the Bureau more responsive to the needs of the taxpaying public.

After the People's Revolution in February 1986, a renewed thrust towards an effective tax administration was pursued by the Bureau. "Operation: Walang Lagay" was launched to promote the efficient and honest collection of taxes.

On January 30, 1987, the Bureau was reorganized under the administration of Commissioner Bienvenido Tan Jr. pursuant to Executive Order (EO) No. 127. Under the said EO, two major functional groups headed and supervised by a Deputy Commissioner were created, and these were: 1) the Assessment and Collection Group; and 2) the Legal and Internal Administration Group.

With the advent of the value-added tax (VAT) in 1988, a massive campaign program aimed to promote and encourage compliance with the requirements of the VAT was launched. The adoption of the VAT system was one of the structural reforms provided for in the 1986 Tax Reform Program, which was designed to simplify tax administration and make the tax system more equitable. It was also in 1988 that the Revenue Information Systems Services Inc. (RISSI) was abolished and transferred back to the BIR by virtue of a Memorandum Order from the Office of the President dated May 24, 1988. This transfer had implications on the delivery of the computerization requirements of the Bureau in relation to its functions of tax assessment and collection.

The entry of Commissioner Jose Ong in 1989 saw the advent of the "Tax Administration Program" which is the embodiment of the Bureau's mission to improve tax collection and simplify tax administration. The Program contained several tax reform and enhancement measures, which included the use of the Taxpayer Identification Number (TIN) and the adoption of the New Payment Control System and Simplified Net Income Taxation Scheme.

The year 1993 marked the entry into the Bureau of its first female Commissioner, Liwayway Vinzons-Chato. In order to attain the Bureau's vision of transformation, a comprehensive and integrated program known as the ACTS or Action-Centered Transformation Program was undertaken to realign and direct the entire organization towards the fulfillment of its vision and mission.

It was during Commissioner Chato's term that a five-year Tax Computerization Project (TCP) was undertaken in 1994. This involved the establishment of a modern and computerized Integrated Tax System and Internal Administration System.

Further streamlining of the BIR was approved in July 1997 through the passage of EO No.430, in order to support the implementation of the computerized Integrated Tax System. Highlights of the said EO included the: 1) creation of a fourth Revenue Group in the BIR, which is the Legal and Enforcement Group (headed by a Deputy Commissioner); and 2) creation of the Internal Affairs Service, Taxpayers Assistance Service, Information Planning and Quality Service and the Revenue Data Centers.

With the advent of President Estrada's administration, a Deputy Commissioner of the BIR, Beethoven Rualo, was appointed as Commissioner of Internal Revenue. Under his leadership, priority reform measures were undertaken to enhance voluntary compliance and improve the Bureau's productivity. One of the most significant reform measures was the implementation of the Economic Recovery Assistance Payment (ERAP) Program, which granted immunity from audit and investigation to taxpayers who have paid 20% more than the tax paid in 1997 for income tax, VAT and/or percentage taxes.

In order to encourage and educate consumers/taxpayers to demand sales invoices and receipts, the raffle promo "Humingi ng Resibo, Manalo ng Libo-Libo" was institutionalized in 1999. The Large Taxpayers Monitoring System was also established under Commissioner Rualo's administration to closely monitor the tax compliance of the country's large taxpayers.

The coming of the new millennium ushered in the changing of the guard in the BIR with the appointment of Dakila Fonacier as the new Commissioner of Internal Revenue. Under his administration, measures that would enhance taxpayer compliance and deter tax violations were prioritized. The most significant of these measures include: full utilization of tax computerization in the Bureau's operations; expansion of the use of electronic Documentary Stamp Tax metering machine and establishment of tie-up with the national government agencies and local government units for the prompt remittance of withholding taxes; and implementation of Compromise Settlement Program for taxpayers with outstanding accounts receivable and disputed assessments with the BIR.

Memoranda of Agreement were also forged with the league of local government units and several private sector and professional organizations (i.e. MAP, TMAP, PCCI, FFCCCI, etc.) to help the BIR implement tax campaign initiatives.

On September 1, 2000, the Large Taxpayers Service (LTS) and the Excise Taxpayers Service (ETS) were established under EO No. 175 to reinforce the tax administration and enforcement capabilities of the BIR. Shortly after the establishment of said revenue services, a new organizational structure was approved on October 31, 2001 under EO No. 306 which resulted in the integration of the functions of the ETS and the LTS.

In line with the passage of the Electronic Commerce Act of 2000 on June 14, the Bureau implemented a Full Integrated Tax System (ITS) Rollout Acceleration Program to facilitate the full utilization of tax computerization in the Bureau's operations. Under the Program, seven ITS back-end systems were released in stages in RR 8 Makati City and the Large Taxpayers Service.

Following the momentous events of EDSA II in January 2001, newly installed President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo appointed a former Deputy Commissioner, Atty. Ren G. Baez, as the new Commissioner of Internal Revenue.

Under Commissioner Baez's administration, the BIR's thrust was to transform the agency to make it taxpayer-focused. This was undertaken through the implementation of change initiatives that were directed to: 1) reform the tax system to make it simpler and suit the Philippine culture; 2) reengineer the tax processes to make them simpler, more efficient and transparent; 3) restructure the BIR to give it financial and administrative flexibility; and 4) redesign the human resource policies, systems and procedures to transform the workforce to be more responsive to taxpayers' needs.

Measures to enhance the Bureau's revenue-generating capability were also implemented, the most notable of which were the implementation of the Voluntary Assessment Program and Compromise Settlement Program and expansion of coverage of the creditable withholding tax system. A technology-based system that promotes the paperless filing of tax returns and payment of taxes was also adopted through the Electronic Filing and Payment System (eFPS).

With the resignation of Commissioner Baez on August 19, 2002, Finance Undersecretary Cornelio C. Gison was designated as interim BIR Commissioner. Eight days later (on August 27, 2002), former Customs Commissioner, Guillermo L. Parayno Jr. was appointed as the new Commissioner of Internal Revenue (CIR).

Barely a month since his assumption to duty as the new CIR, Commissioner Parayno offered a Voluntary Assessment and Abatement Program (VAAP) to taxpayers with under-declared sales/receipts/income. To enhance the collection performance of the BIR, Commissioner Parayno adopted the use of new systems such as the Reconciliation of Listings for Enforcement or RELIEF System to detect under-declarations of taxable income by taxpayers and the electronic broadcasting system to enhance the security of tax payments. It was also under Commissioner Parayno's administration that the BIR expanded its electronic services to include the web-based TIN application and processing; electronic raffle of invoices/receipts; provision of e-payment gateways; e-substituted filing of tax returns and electronic submission of sales reports. The conduct of special operations on high-profile tax evaders, which resulted to the filing of tax cases under the Run After Tax Evaders (RATE) Program marked Commissioner Parayno's administration as well as the conduct of Tax Compliance Verification Drives and accreditation and registration of cash register machines and point-of-sale machines. To improve taxpayer service, the Bureau also established a BIR Contact Center in the National Office and eLounges in Regional Offices.

On October 28, 2006, Deputy Commissioner for Legal and Inspection Group, Jose Mario C. Buag was appointed as full-fledged Commissioner of Internal Revenue. Under his administration, the Bureau attained success in a number of key undertakings, which included the expansion of the RATE Program to the Regional Offices; inclusion of new payment gateways, such as the Efficient Service Machines and the G-Cash and SMART Money facilities; implementation of the Benchmarking Method and installation of the Bureau's e-Complaint System, a new e-Service that allows taxpayers to log their complaints against erring revenuers through the BIR website. The Nationwide Rollout of Computerized Systems (NRCS) was also undertaken to extend the use of the Bureau's Integrated Tax System across its non-computerized Revenue District Offices. In 2007, the National Program Support for Tax Administration Reform (NPSTAR), a program funded by various international development agencies, was launched to improve the BIR efficiency in various areas of tax administration (i.e. taxpayer compliance, tax enforcement and control, etc.).

On June 29, 2007, Commissioner Buag relinquished the top post of the BIR and was replaced by Deputy Commissioner for Operations Group, Lilian B. Hefti, making her the second lady Commissioner of the BIR. Commissioner Hefti focused on the strengthening of the use of business intelligence by embarking on data matching of income payments of withholding agents against the reported income of the concerned recipients. Information sharing between the BIR and the Local Government Units (LGUs) was also intensified through the LGU Revenue Assurance System, which aims to uncover fraud and non-payment of taxes. To enhance the Bureau's audit capabilities, the use of Computer-Assisted Audit Tools and Techniques (CAATTs) was also introduced in the BIR under her term.

With the resignation of Commissioner Hefti in October 2008, former BIR Deputy Commissioner for Legal and Enforcement Group, Sixto S. Esquivias IV was appointed as the new Commissioner of Internal Revenue. Commissioner Esquivias administration was marked with the conduct of nationwide closure of erring business establishments under the Oplan Kandado Program. A Taxpayer Feedback Mechanism (through the eComplaint facility accessible via the BIR Website) was also established under his term where complaints on erring BIR employees and taxpayers who do not pay taxes and do not issue ORs/invoices can be reported. In 2009, the Bureau revived its Handang Maglingkod Project where the best frontline offices were recognized for rendering effective taxpayer service.

When Commissioner Esquivias resigned in November 2009, Senior Deputy Commissioner, Joel L. Tan-Torres assumed the position of Commissioner of Internal Revenue. Under his administration, Commissioner Tan-Torres pursued a high visibility public awareness campaign on the Bureau's enforcement and taxpayers service programs. He institutionalized several programs/projects to improve revenue collections, and these include Project R.I.P (Rest in Peace); intensified filing of tax evasion cases under the re-invigorated RATE Program; conduct of Taxpayers Lifestyle Check and development of Industry Champions. Linkages with various agencies (i.e. LTO, SEC, BLGF, PHALTRA, etc.) were also established through the signing of several Memoranda of Agreement to improve specific areas of tax administration.

Following the election of Benigno S. Aquino III, then Deputy Commissioner Kim S. Jacinto-Henares was appointed as the new Commissioner. During her first few months in office, she focused on the filing of tax evasion cases under the RATE Program.

The Bureau of Internal Revenue (Filipino: Kawanihan ng Rentas Internas) is an attached agency of Department of Finance. BIR collects more than one-half of the total revenues of the government.

Rodrigo Duterte signed the Republic Act 10963 or the Tax Reform for Inclusion and Acceleration Act of 2017, which lowered personal income tax rates but increased taxes on certain goods, leading to a net increase in revenue. This excess revenue will be used to fund the major expansion in public infrastructure in the country (see Build! Build! Build! Plan).

The Bureau regularly releases regulations, memorandums circulars, and rulings to clarify or change certain areas of the law.

Some are listed below:

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Jacinda Ardern resigns as prime minister of New Zealand

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New Zealands prime minister, Jacinda Ardern, has said she is resigning, in an unexpected announcement that came as she confirmed a national election for October.

At the partys first caucus meeting of the year on Thursday, Ardern said she no longer had enough in the tank to do the job. Its time, she added.

Im leaving, because with such a privileged role comes responsibility the responsibility to know when you are the right person to lead and also when you are not. I know what this job takes. And I know that I no longer have enough in the tank to do it justice. Its that simple, she said.

Her term as prime minister will conclude no later than 7 February but she will continue as an MP until the election this year.

I am human, politicians are human. We give all that we can for as long as we can. And then its time. And for me, its time, she said.

Ardern said she had reflected over the summer break on whether she had the energy to continue in the role, and had concluded she did not.

Ardern became the worlds youngest female head of government when she was elected prime minister in 2017 at 37. She has led New Zealand through the Covid-19 pandemic, and a series of disasters including the terrorist attack on two mosques in Christchurch, and the White Island volcanic eruption.

This has been the most fulfilling five and a half years of my life. But its also had its challenges among an agenda focused on housing, child poverty and climate change, we encountered a domestic terror event, a major natural disaster, a global pandemic, and an economic crisis, she said.

Asked how she would like New Zealanders to remember her leadership, Ardern said as someone who always tried to be kind.

I hope I leave New Zealanders with a belief that you can be kind, but strong, empathetic but decisive, optimistic but focused. And that you can be your own kind of leader one who knows when its time to go, Ardern said.

Over the past year, Ardern has faced a significant increase in threats of violence, particularly from conspiracy theorist and anti-vaccine groups infuriated by the countrys vaccine mandates and lockdowns. She said, however, that the increased risk associated with the job were not behind her decision to step down.

I dont want to leave the impression that the adversity you face in politics is the reason that people exit. Yes, it does have an impact. We are humans after all, but that was not the basis of my decision, she said.

Ardern said she had no future plans, other than to spend more time with her family.

She thanked her partner, Clarke Gayford, and daughter Neve, whom she gave birth to while holding office, as the ones that have sacrificed the most out of all of us.

To Neve: Mum is looking forward to being there when you start school this year. And to Clarke lets finally get married.

The prime ministers announcement came as a shock to many New Zealanders. During a brief flurry of speculation over Arderns possible resignation in late 2022, the prime minister said she had no intention of doing so. In the weeks leading up to Thursdays announcement, there were no clues or leaks to suggest her resignation was on the cards.

The news arrives as New Zealand enters a closely fought election year, with the date of the vote announced for 14 October. Polling over recent months had placed the Ardern-led Labour party slightly behind the opposition National.

Ardern said her decline in the polls did not prompt her decision to leave.

Im not leaving because I believe we cant win the election, but because I believe we can and will, and we need a fresh set of shoulders for that challenge, she said.

Who will replace Ardern is not yet clear: the deputy leader and finance minister, Grant Robertson, who would be considered a frontrunner, said on Thursday that he would not be seeking the position.I am not putting myself forward to be a candidate for the leadership of the Labour party, he said.

The Labour caucus has seven days to find out whether a new candidate holds more than two-thirds of support within caucus to become the new leader and prime minister. A caucus vote for a new leader will take place on 22 January. If no one meets that threshold level of support, the leadership contest will go to the wider Labour membership.

The National leader, Christopher Luxon, said Ardern had made a significant contribution to New Zealand, in what is a difficult and demanding job and called her a strong ambassador for New Zealand on the world stage.

Her leadership in the aftermath of the Christchurch terror attacks was simultaneously strong and compassionate, and is something she can be proud of, he added.

The prime minister of Australia, Anthony Albanese, paid tribute to Ardern, saying she has shown the world how to lead with intellect and strength She has demonstrated that empathy and insight are powerful leadership qualities.

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Jacinda Ardern resigns as prime minister of New Zealand

New Zealand | History, Map, Flag, Capital, Population, & Facts

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Head Of Government:Prime Minister: Jacinda Ardern...(Show more)Capital:Wellington...(Show more)Population:(2023 est.) 5,128,000...(Show more)Currency Exchange Rate:1 USD equals 1.559 New Zealand dollar...(Show more)Head Of State:British Monarch: King Charles III, represented by Governor-General: Dame Alcyion Cynthia (Cindy) Kiro...(Show more)Recent NewsJan. 18, 2023, 7:54 PM ET - Saying "I no longer have enough in the tank," New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern has announced that she will step down no later than February 7.

Summary

New Zealand, Mori Aotearoa, island country in the South Pacific Ocean, the southwesternmost part of Polynesia. New Zealand is a remote landone of the last sizable territories suitable for habitation to be populated and settledand lies more than 1,000 miles (1,600 km) southeast of Australia, its nearest neighbour. The country comprises two main islandsthe North and the South Islandand a number of small islands, some of them hundreds of miles from the main group. The capital city is Wellington and the largest urban area Auckland; both are located on the North Island. New Zealand administers the South Pacific island group of Tokelau and claims a section of the Antarctic continent. Niue and the Cook Islands are self-governing states in free association with New Zealand.

New Zealand is a land of great contrasts and diversity. Active volcanoes, spectacular caves, deep glacier lakes, verdant valleys, dazzling fjords, long sandy beaches, and the spectacular snowcapped peaks of the Southern Alps/K Tiritiri o te Moana on the South Islandall contribute to New Zealands scenic beauty. New Zealand also has a unique array of vegetation and animal life, much of which developed during the countrys prolonged isolation. It is the sole home, for example, of the long-beaked, flightless kiwi, the ubiquitous nickname for New Zealanders.

New Zealand was the largest country in Polynesia when it was annexed by Great Britain in 1840. Thereafter it was successively a crown colony, a self-governing colony (1856), and a dominion (1907). By the 1920s it controlled almost all of its internal and external policies, although it did not become fully independent until 1947, when it adopted the Statute of Westminster. It is a member of the Commonwealth.

The ascent of Mount Everest by New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary with Sherpa Tenzing Norgay in 1953 was one of the defining moments of the 20th century. In some ways, Hillary suggested, I believe I epitomise the average New Zealander: I have modest abilities, I combine these with a good deal of determination, and I rather like to succeed.

Despite New Zealands isolation, the country has been fully engaged in international affairs since the early 20th century, being an active member of a number of intergovernmental institutions, including the United Nations. It has also participated in several wars, including World Wars I and II. Economically the country was dependent on the export of agricultural products, especially to Great Britain. The entry of Britain into the European Community in the early 1970s, however, forced New Zealand to expand its trade relations with other countries. It also began to develop a much more extensive and varied industrial sector. Tourism has played an increasingly important role in the economy, though this sector has been vulnerable to global financial instability.

The social and cultural gap between New Zealands two main groupsthe indigenous Mori of Polynesian heritage and the colonizers and later immigrants from the British Isles and their descendantshas decreased since the 1970s, though educational and economic differences between the two groups remain. Immigration from other areasAsia, Africa, and eastern Europehas also made a mark, and New Zealand culture today reflects these many influences. Minority rights and race-related issues continue to play an important role in New Zealand politics.

New Zealand is about 1,000 miles (1,600 km) long (north-south) and about 280 miles (450 km) across at its widest point. The country has slightly less surface area than the U.S. state of Colorado and a little more than the United Kingdom. About two-thirds of the land is economically useful, the remainder being mountainous. Because of its numerous harbours and fjords, the country has an extremely long coastline relative to its area.

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New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern to resign

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New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern, whose empathetic handling of the nation's worst mass-shooting and health-driven response to the coronavirus pandemic led her to become an international icon, but who faced mounting criticism at home, said Thursday she was leaving office.

Fighting back tears, Ardern told reporters in Napier that Feb. 7 will be her last day as prime minister.

"I am entering now my sixth year in office, and for each of those years, I have given my absolute all," she said.

She also announced that New Zealand's general elections would be held on Oct. 14, and that she would remain a lawmaker until then.

Her announcement came as a shock to people throughout the nation of 5 million people. Although there had been some chatter in political circles that Ardern might resign before the next election, she'd always firmly said she planned to run again.

It's unclear who will take over as prime minister until the election. Deputy Prime Minister Grant Robertson announced he wouldn't be contesting for the leadership of the Labour Party, throwing the competition open.

Ardern became an inspiration to women around the world after winning the top job in 2017 at the relatively young age of 37. The following year, she became just the second world leader to give birth while holding office. When she brought her infant daughter to the floor of the U.N. General Assembly in New York in 2018, it brought smiles to people everywhere.

In March 2019, Ardern faced one of the darkest days in New Zealand's history when a white supremacist gunman stormed two mosques in Christchurch and slaughtered 51 people. She was widely praised for the way she embraced the survivors and New Zealand's Muslim community in the aftermath.

She was lauded globally for her country's initial handling of the coronavirus pandemic after New Zealand managed for months to stop the virus at its borders. But that zero-tolerance strategy was abandoned once it was challenged by new variants and vaccines became widely available.

Ardern faced growing anger at home from those who opposed coronavirus mandates and rules. A protest last year that began on Parliament's grounds lasted for more than three weeks and ended with protesters hurling rocks at police and setting fires to tents and mattresses as they were forced to leave.

The heated emotions around the coronavirus debate led to a level of vitriol directed at Ardern that was rarely been seen by former New Zealand leaders. This year, Ardern was forced to cancel an annual barbecue she hosts due to security fears.

Ardern had been facing tough reelection prospects. Her liberal Labour Party won reelection two years ago in a landslide of historic proportions, but recent polls have put her party behind its conservative rivals.

Ardern described her job as among the most privileged but challenging and said doing it required having a reserve to face the unexpected. She said she no longer had that reserve to serve another term.

She said her time in office has been fulfilling but challenging.

"But I am not leaving because it was hard. Had that been the case I probably would have departed two months into the job. I am leaving because with such a privileged role, comes responsibility, the responsibility to know when you are the right person to lead, and also, when you are not. I know what this job takes, and I know that I no longer have enough in the tank to do it justice. It is that simple," she said.

Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese, whose Labor Party is aligned with New Zealand's ruling party, said Ardern "has shown the world how to lead with intellect and strength."

"She has demonstrated that empathy and insight are powerful leadership qualities," Albanese tweeted.

"Jacinda has been a fierce advocate for New Zealand, an inspiration to so many and a great friend to me," he added.

With China becoming more assertive in the Pacific, Ardern had tried to take a more diplomatic approach than neighboring Australia, which had ended up feuding with China. In an interview with The Associated Press last month, she'd said that building relationships with small Pacific nations shouldn't become a game of one-upmanship with China.

Ardern in December announced a Royal Commission of Inquiry would look into whether the government made the right decisions in battling COVID-19 and how it can better prepare for future pandemics. Its report is due next year.

The Labour Party caucus will vote for a new leader on Sunday. If no candidate gets at least two-thirds support, then the leadership contest will go to the wider party membership. Ardern has recommended the party chose her replacement by the time she finishes on Feb. 7.

Ardern said she didn't have any immediate plans after leaving office, other than family commitments with her daughter, Neve, and her fiance Clarke Gayford, after an outbreak of the virus thwarted their earlier wedding plans.

"And so to Neve, Mum is looking forward to being there when you start school this year," Ardern said. "And to Clarke, let's finally get married."

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Quantum – Wikipedia

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In physics, a quantum (plural quanta) is the minimum amount of any physical entity (physical property) involved in an interaction. The fundamental notion that a physical property can be "quantized" is referred to as "the hypothesis of quantization".[1] This means that the magnitude of the physical property can take on only discrete values consisting of integer multiples of one quantum.

For example, a photon is a single quantum of light (or of any other form of electromagnetic radiation). Similarly, the energy of an electron bound within an atom is quantized and can exist only in certain discrete values. (Atoms and matter in general are stable because electrons can exist only at discrete energy levels within an atom.) Quantization is one of the foundations of the much broader physics of quantum mechanics. Quantization of energy and its influence on how energy and matter interact (quantum electrodynamics) is part of the fundamental framework for understanding and describing nature.

The word quantum is the neuter singular of the Latin interrogative adjective quantus, meaning "how much". "Quanta", the neuter plural, short for "quanta of electricity" (electrons), was used in a 1902 article on the photoelectric effect by Philipp Lenard, who credited Hermann von Helmholtz for using the word in the area of electricity. However, the word quantum in general was well known before 1900,[2] e.g. quantum was used in E.A. Poe's Loss of Breath. It was often used by physicians, such as in the term quantum satis, "the amount which is enough". Both Helmholtz and Julius von Mayer were physicians as well as physicists. Helmholtz used quantum with reference to heat in his article[3] on Mayer's work, and the word quantum can be found in the formulation of the first law of thermodynamics by Mayer in his letter[4] dated July 24, 1841.

In 1901, Max Planck used quanta to mean "quanta of matter and electricity",[5] gas, and heat.[6] In 1905, in response to Planck's work and the experimental work of Lenard (who explained his results by using the term quanta of electricity), Albert Einstein suggested that radiation existed in spatially localized packets which he called "quanta of light" ("Lichtquanta").[7]

The concept of quantization of radiation was discovered in 1900 by Max Planck, who had been trying to understand the emission of radiation from heated objects, known as black-body radiation. By assuming that energy can be absorbed or released only in tiny, differential, discrete packets (which he called "bundles", or "energy elements"),[8] Planck accounted for certain objects changing color when heated.[9] On December 14, 1900, Planck reported his findings to the German Physical Society, and introduced the idea of quantization for the first time as a part of his research on black-body radiation.[10] As a result of his experiments, Planck deduced the numerical value of h, known as the Planck constant, and reported more precise values for the unit of electrical charge and the AvogadroLoschmidt number, the number of real molecules in a mole, to the German Physical Society. After his theory was validated, Planck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery in 1918.

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10 mind-boggling things you should know about quantum physics

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1. The quantum world is lumpy

The quantum world (opens in new tab) has a lot in common with shoes. You cant just go to a shop and pick out sneakers that are an exact match for your feet. Instead, youre forced to choose between pairs that come in predetermined sizes.

The subatomic world is similar. Albert Einstein (opens in new tab) won a Nobel Prize for proving that energy is quantized. Just as you can only buy shoes in multiples of half a size, so energy only comes in multiples of the same "quanta" hence the name quantum physics.

The quanta here is the Planck constant (opens in new tab), named after Max Planck, the godfather of quantum physics. He was trying to solve a problem with our understanding of hot objects like the sun. Our best theories couldnt match the observations of the energy they kick out. By proposing that energy is quantized, he was able to bring theory neatly into line with experiment.

J. J. Thomson won the Nobel Prize in 1906 for his discovery that electrons are particles. Yet his son George won the Nobel Prize in 1937 for showing that electrons are waves. Who was right? The answer is both of them. This so-called wave-particle duality (opens in new tab) is a cornerstone of quantum physics. It applies to light as well as electrons. Sometimes it pays to think about light as an electromagnetic wave, but at other times its more useful to picture it in the form of particles called photons.

A telescope (opens in new tab) can focus light waves from distant stars, and also acts as a giant light bucket for collecting photons. It also means that light can exert pressure as photons slam into an object. This is something we already use to propel spacecraft with solar sails, and it may be possible to exploit it in order to maneuver a dangerous asteroid off a collision course with Earth (opens in new tab), according to Rusty Schweickart, chairman of the B612 Foundation.

Wave-particle duality is an example of superposition (opens in new tab). That is, a quantum object existing in multiple states at once. An electron, for example, is both here and there simultaneously. Its only once we do an experiment to find out where it is that it settles down into one or the other.

This makes quantum physics all about probabilities. We can only say which state an object is most likely to be in once we look. These odds are encapsulated into a mathematical entity called the wave function. Making an observation is said to collapse the wave function, destroying the superposition and forcing the object into just one of its many possible states.

This idea is behind the famous Schrdingers cat (opens in new tab) thought experiment. A cat in a sealed box has its fate linked to a quantum device. As the device exists in both states until a measurement is made, the cat is simultaneously alive and dead until we look.

The idea that observation collapses the wave function and forces a quantum choice is known as the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum physics. However, its not the only option on the table. Advocates of the many worlds interpretation argue that there is no choice involved at all. Instead, at the moment the measurement is made, reality fractures into two copies of itself: one in which we experience outcome A, and another where we see outcome B unfold. It gets around the thorny issue of needing an observer to make stuff happen does a dog count as an observer, or a robot?

Instead, as far as a quantum particle is concerned, theres just one very weird reality consisting of many tangled-up layers. As we zoom out towards the larger scales that we experience day to day, those layers untangle into the worlds of the many worlds theory. (opens in new tab) Physicists call this process decoherence.

Danish physicist Niels Bohr showed us that the orbits of electrons inside atoms are also quantized. They come in predetermined sizes called energy levels. When an electron drops from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, it spits out a photon with an energy equal to the size of the gap. Equally, an electron can absorb a particle of light and use its energy to leap up to a higher energy level.

Astronomers use this effect all the time. We know what stars are made of because when we break up their light into a rainbow-like spectrum, we see colors that are missing. Different chemical elements have different energy level spacings, so we can work out the constituents of the sun and other stars from the precise colors that are absent.

The sun makes its energy through a process called nuclear fusion. It involves two protons the positively charged particles in an atom sticking together. However, their identical charges make them repel each other, just like two north poles of a magnet. Physicists call this the Coulomb barrier, and its like a wall between the two protons.

Think of protons as particles and they just collide with the wall and move apart: No fusion, no sunlight. Yet think of them as waves, and its a different story. When the waves crest reaches the wall, the leading edge has already made it through. The waves height represents where the proton is most likely to be. So although it is unlikely to be where the leading edge is, it is there sometimes. Its as if the proton has burrowed through the barrier, and fusion occurs. Physicists call this effect "quantum tunneling".

Eventually fusion in the sun will stop and our star will die. Gravity will win and the sun will collapse, but not indefinitely. The smaller it gets, the more material is crammed together. Eventually a rule of quantum physics called the Pauli exclusion principle comes into play. This says that it is forbidden for certain kinds of particles such as electrons to exist in the same quantum state. As gravity tries to do just that, it encounters a resistance that astronomers call degeneracy pressure. The collapse stops, and a new Earth-sized object called a white dwarf forms.

Degeneracy pressure can only put up so much resistance, however. If a white dwarf grows and approaches a mass equal to 1.4 suns, it triggers a wave of fusion that blasts it to bits. Astronomers call this explosion a Type Ia supernova (opens in new tab), and its bright enough to outshine an entire galaxy.

A quantum rule called the Heisenberg uncertainty principle (opens in new tab) says that its impossible to perfectly know two properties of a system simultaneously. The more accurately you know one, the less precisely you know the other. This applies to momentum and position, and separately to energy and time.

Its a bit like taking out a loan. You can borrow a lot of money for a short amount of time, or a little cash for longer. This leads us to virtual particles. If enough energy is borrowed from nature then a pair of particles can fleetingly pop into existence, before rapidly disappearing so as not to default on the loan.

Stephen Hawking (opens in new tab) imagined this process occurring at the boundary of a black hole, where one particle escapes (as Hawking radiation), but the other is swallowed. Over time the black hole slowly evaporates, as its not paying back the full amount it has borrowed.

Our best theory of the universes origin is the Big Bang (opens in new tab). Yet it was modified in the 1980s to include another theory called inflation (opens in new tab). In the first trillionth of a trillionth of a trillionth of a second, the cosmos ballooned from smaller than an atom to about the size of a grapefruit. Thats a whopping 10^78 times bigger. Inflating a red blood cell by the same amount would make it larger than the entire observable universe today.

As it was initially smaller than an atom, the infant universe would have been dominated by quantum fluctuations linked to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Inflation caused the universe to grow rapidly before these fluctuations had a chance to fade away. This concentrated energy into some areas rather than others something astronomers believe acted as seeds around which material could gather to form the clusters of galaxies we observe now.

As well as helping to prove that light is quantum, Einstein argued in favor of another effect that he dubbed spooky action at distance. Today we know that this quantum entanglement is real, but we still dont fully understand whats going on. Lets say that we bring two particles together in such a way that their quantum states are inexorably bound, or entangled. One is in state A, and the other in state B.

The Pauli exclusion principle says that they cant both be in the same state. If we change one, the other instantly changes to compensate. This happens even if we separate the two particles from each other on opposite sides of the universe. Its as if information about the change weve made has traveled between them faster than the speed of light, something Einstein said was impossible.

Join our Space Forums (opens in new tab)to keep talking space on the latest missions, night sky and more! And if you have a news tip, correction or comment, let us know at:community@space.com. (opens in new tab)

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10 mind-boggling things you should know about quantum physics

What is quantum in physics and computing? – TechTarget

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What is a quantum?

A quantum (plural: quanta) is the smallest discrete unit of a phenomenon. For example, a quantum of light is a photon, and a quantum of electricity is an electron. Quantum comes from Latin, meaning "an amount" or "how much?" If something is quantifiable, then it can be measured.

The modern use of quantum in physics was coined by Max Planck in 1901. He was trying to explain black-body radiation and how objects changed color after being heated. Instead of assuming that the energy was emitted in a constant wave, he posed that the energy was emitted in discrete packets, or bundles. These were termed quanta of energy. This led to him discovering Planck's constant, which is a fundamental universal value.

Planck's constant is symbolized as h and relates the energy in one photon to the frequency of the photon. Further units were derived from Planck's constant: Planck's distance and Planck's time, which describe the shortest meaningful unit of distance and the shortest meaningful unit of time. For anything smaller, Werner Heisenberg's uncertainty principle renders the measurements meaningless.

The discovery of quanta and the quantum nature of subatomic particles led to a revolution in physics. This became quantum theory, or quantum mechanics. Quantum theory describes the behavior of microscopic particles; Albert Einstein's theory of relativity describes the behavior of macroscopic things. These two theories are the underpinning of modern physics. Unfortunately, they deal with different domains, leaving physicists to seek a so-called unified theory of everything.

Subatomic particles behave in ways that are counterintuitive. A single photon quantum of light can simultaneously go through two slits in a piece of material, as shown in the double-slit experiment. Schrdinger's cat is a famous thought experiment that describes a quantum particle in superposition, or the state where the probability waveform has not collapsed. Particles can also become quantumly entangled, causing them to interact instantly over a distance.

Quantum computing uses the nature of subatomic particles to perform calculations instead of using electrical signals as in classical computing. Quantum computers use qubits instead of binary bits. By programming the initial conditions of the qubit, quantum computing can solve a problem when the superposition state collapses. The forefront of quantum computer research is in linking greater numbers of qubits together to be able to solve larger and more complex problems.

Quantum computers can perform certain calculations much faster than classical computers. To find an answer to a problem, classical computers need to go through each option one at a time. It can take a long time to go through all the options for some types of problems. Quantum computers do not need to try each option; instead, they resolve the answer almost instantly.

Some problems that quantum computers can solve quicker than classical computers are factoring for prime numbers and the traveling salesman problem. Once quantum computers demonstrate the ability to solve these problems faster than classical computers, quantum supremacy will be achieved.

Prime factorization is an important function for the modern cryptography systems that secure digital communication. Experts currently expect that quantum computers will render existing cryptographic systems insecure and obsolete.

Efforts to develop post-quantum cryptography are underway to create algorithms that are resistant to quantum attacks, but can still be used by classical computers. Eventually, fully quantum cryptography will be available for quantum computers.

See also: Table of Physical Units and Table of Physical Constants

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What is quantum in physics and computing? - TechTarget

The Primacy of Doubt: From Quantum Physics to Climate Change, How the Science of Uncertainty Can Help Us Understand Our Chaotic World – Next Big Idea…

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The Primacy of Doubt: From Quantum Physics to Climate Change, How the Science of Uncertainty Can Help Us Understand Our Chaotic World  Next Big Idea Club Magazine

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Classic Mountain Cam

Our classic mountain cam provides an iconic panorama view of the ridge line throughout the year. You can watch skiers swoosh down Dobie trail and beginners at the Learning Area during the winter. Spring, summer and fall will showcase the foliage returning,growing green then setting off a fireworks display of color before descending.

The Lookout Cam provides glimpses of Eagles Swoop slope and The Plunge snow tubing park. Watch skiers and tubers zoom down the mountain during the winter and be on the lookout for wildlife (humans or animals) playing on the mountain during spring, summerand fall seasons.

This camera shows Checkerberry Cabin and the base of the Blue Ridge Express, a high speed 6-pack chairlift. This site is bustling with skiers and snowboarders during the winter season and plays host to a variety of events throughout the summer.

This camera captures the beauty of Stoney Creek Golf Course, the Golf Academy, driving range, putting green, Shamokin One and Shamokin Nine. Watching golfers warming up, improving their game and teeing off -- FORE!

Catch golfers on Devils Knob Golf Course around the Pro Shop, driving range, hole #10 tee boxes and a portion of the 18th green.

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Terraforming – Wikipedia

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Hypothetical planetary engineering process

Terraforming or terraformation ("Earth-shaping") is the hypothetical process of deliberately modifying the atmosphere, temperature, surface topography or ecology of a planet, moon, or other body to be similar to the environment of Earth to make it habitable for humans to live on.

The concept of terraforming developed from both science fiction and actual science. Carl Sagan, an astronomer, proposed the planetary engineering of Venus in 1961, which is considered one of the first accounts of the concept.[1] The term was coined by Jack Williamson in a science-fiction short story ("Collision Orbit") published in 1942 in Astounding Science Fiction,[2] although terraforming in popular culture may predate this work.

Even if the environment of a planet could be altered deliberately, the feasibility of creating an unconstrained planetary environment that mimics Earth on another planet has yet to be verified. While Venus, Earth, Mars, and even the Moon have been studied in relation to the subject, Mars is usually considered to be the most likely candidate for terraforming. Much study has been done concerning the possibility of heating the planet and altering its atmosphere, and NASA has even hosted debates on the subject. Several potential methods for the terraforming of Mars may be within humanity's technological capabilities, but according to Martin Beech, the economic attitude of preferring short-term profits over long-term investments will not support a terraforming project.[3]

The long timescales and practicality of terraforming are also the subject of debate. As the subject has gained traction, research has expanded to other possibilities including biological terraforming, para-terraforming, and modifying humans to better suit the environments of planets and moons. Despite this, questions still remain in areas relating to the ethics, logistics, economics, politics, and methodology of altering the environment of an extraterrestrial world, presenting issues to the implementation of the concept.

The astronomer Carl Sagan proposed the planetary engineering of Venus in an article published in the journal Science in 1961.[1] Sagan imagined seeding the atmosphere of Venus with algae, which would convert water, nitrogen and carbon dioxide into organic compounds. As this process removed carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, the greenhouse effect would be reduced until surface temperatures dropped to "comfortable" levels. The resulting carbon, Sagan supposed, would be incinerated by the high surface temperatures of Venus, and thus be sequestered in the form of "graphite or some involatile form of carbon" on the planet's surface.[4] However, later discoveries about the conditions on Venus made this particular approach impossible. One problem is that the clouds of Venus are composed of a highly concentrated sulfuric acid solution. Even if atmospheric algae could thrive in the hostile environment of Venus's upper atmosphere, an even more insurmountable problem is that its atmosphere is simply far too thickthe high atmospheric pressure would result in an "atmosphere of nearly pure molecular oxygen" and cause the planet's surface to be thickly covered in fine graphite powder.[4] This volatile combination could not be sustained through time. Any carbon that was fixed in organic form would be liberated as carbon dioxide again through combustion, "short-circuiting" the terraforming process.[4]

Sagan also visualized making Mars habitable for human life in "Planetary Engineering on Mars" (1973), an article published in the journal Icarus.[5] Three years later, NASA addressed the issue of planetary engineering officially in a study, but used the term "planetary ecosynthesis" instead.[6] The study concluded that it was possible for Mars to support life and be made into a habitable planet. The first conference session on terraforming, then referred to as "Planetary Modeling", was organized that same year.

In March 1979, NASA engineer and author James Oberg organized the First Terraforming Colloquium, a special session at the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference in Houston. Oberg popularized the terraforming concepts discussed at the colloquium to the general public in his book New Earths (1981).[7] Not until 1982 was the word terraforming used in the title of a published journal article. Planetologist Christopher McKay wrote "Terraforming Mars", a paper for the Journal of the British Interplanetary Society.[8] The paper discussed the prospects of a self-regulating Martian biosphere, and the word "terraforming" has since become the preferred term.[citation needed]In 1984, James Lovelock and Michael Allaby published The Greening of Mars.[9] Lovelock's book was one of the first to describe a novel method of warming Mars, where chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are added to the atmosphere.

Motivated by Lovelock's book, biophysicist Robert Haynes worked behind the scenes[citation needed] to promote terraforming, and contributed the neologism Ecopoiesis,[10] forming the word from the Greek , oikos, "house",[11] and , poiesis, "production".[12] Ecopoiesis refers to the origin of an ecosystem. In the context of space exploration, Haynes describes ecopoiesis as the "fabrication of a sustainable ecosystem on a currently lifeless, sterile planet". Fogg defines ecopoiesis as a type of planetary engineering and is one of the first stages of terraformation. This primary stage of ecosystem creation is usually restricted to the initial seeding of microbial life.[13] A 2019 opinion piece by Lopez, Peixoto and Rosado has reintroduced microbiology as a necessary component of any possible colonization strategy based on the principles of microbial symbiosis and their beneficial ecosystem services.[14] As conditions approach that of Earth, plant life could be brought in, and this will accelerate the production of oxygen, theoretically making the planet eventually able to support animal life.

In 1985, Martyn J. Fogg started publishing several articles on terraforming. He also served as editor for a full issue on terraforming for the Journal of the British Interplanetary Society in 1992. In his book Terraforming: Engineering Planetary Environments (1995), Fogg proposed the following definitions for different aspects related to terraforming:[13]

Fogg also devised definitions for candidate planets of varying degrees of human compatibility:[15]

Fogg suggests that Mars was a biologically compatible planet in its youth, but is not now in any of these three categories, because it can only be terraformed with greater difficulty.[16]

An absolute requirement for life is an energy source, but the notion of planetary habitability implies that many other geophysical, geochemical, and astrophysical criteria must be met before the surface of an astronomical body is able to support life. Of particular interest is the set of factors that has sustained complex, multicellular animals in addition to simpler organisms on Earth. Research and theory in this regard is a component of planetary science and the emerging discipline of astrobiology.

In its astrobiology roadmap, NASA has defined the principal habitability criteria as "extended regions of liquid water, conditions favorable for the assembly of complex organic molecules, and energy sources to sustain metabolism."[17]

Once conditions become more suitable for life of the introduced species, the importation of microbial life could begin.[13] As conditions approach that of Earth, plant life could also be brought in. This would accelerate the production of oxygen, which theoretically would make the planet eventually able to support animal life.

In many respects, Mars is the most Earth-like planet in the Solar System.[18][19] It is thought that Mars once had a more Earth-like environment early in its history, with a thicker atmosphere and abundant water that was lost over the course of hundreds of millions of years.[20]

The exact mechanism of this loss is still unclear, though three mechanisms, in particular, seem likely: First, whenever surface water is present, carbon dioxide (CO2) reacts with rocks to form carbonates, thus drawing atmosphere off and binding it to the planetary surface. On Earth, this process is counteracted when plate tectonics works to cause volcanic eruptions that vent carbon dioxide back to the atmosphere. On Mars, the lack of such tectonic activity worked to prevent the recycling of gases locked up in sediments.[21]

Second, the lack of a magnetosphere around Mars may have allowed the solar wind to gradually erode the atmosphere.[21] Convection within the core of Mars, which is made mostly of iron,[22] originally generated a magnetic field. However the dynamo ceased to function long ago,[23] and the magnetic field of Mars has largely disappeared, probably due to "loss of core heat, solidification of most of the core, and/or changes in the mantle convection regime."[24] Results from the NASA MAVEN mission show that the atmosphere is removed primarily due to Coronal Mass Ejection events, where outbursts of high-velocity protons from the Sun impact the atmosphere. Mars does still retain a limited magnetosphere that covers approximately 40% of its surface. Rather than uniformly covering and protecting the atmosphere from solar wind, however, the magnetic field takes the form of a collection of smaller, umbrella-shaped fields, mainly clustered together around the planet's southern hemisphere.[25]

Finally, between approximately 4.1 and 3.8 billion years ago, asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to the surface environment of objects in the Solar System. The low gravity of Mars suggests that these impacts could have ejected much of the Martian atmosphere into deep space.[26]

Terraforming Mars would entail two major interlaced changes: building the atmosphere and heating it.[27] A thicker atmosphere of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide would trap incoming solar radiation. Because the raised temperature would add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, the two processes would augment each other.[28] Carbon dioxide alone would not suffice to sustain a temperature above the freezing point of water, so a mixture of specialized greenhouse molecules might be manufactured.[29]

Terraforming Venus requires two major changes: removing most of the planet's dense 9MPa (1,300psi) carbon dioxide atmosphere, and reducing the planet's 450C (842F) surface temperature.[30][31] These goals are closely interrelated because Venus's extreme temperature may result from the greenhouse effect caused by its dense atmosphere.

Although usually disregarded as being too hot, Mercury may in fact be one of the easiest bodies in the solar system to terraform. Mercury's magnetic field is only 1.1% that of Earth's but it is thought that Mercury's magnetic field should be much stronger, up to 30% of Earth's, if it weren't being suppressed by certain solar wind effects.[32] It is thought[by whom?] that Mercury's magnetic field was suppressed after "stalling" at some point in the past (possibly caused by the Caloris basin impact) and, if given a temporary "helping hand" by shielding Mercury from solar wind by placing an artificial magnetic shield at Mercury-Sun L1 (similar to the proposal for Mars), then Mercury's magnetic field would "inflate" and grow in intensity 30 times stronger at which point Mercury's magnetic field would be self sustaining provided the field wasn't made to "stall" by another celestial event.[citation needed]

Despite being much smaller than Mars, Mercury has a gravity nearly identical in strength to Mars due to its increased density and could, with a now augmented magnetosphere, hold a nitrogen/oxygen atmosphere for millions of years.

To provide this atmosphere, 3.51017 kilograms of water could be delivered by a similar process as proposed for Venus by launching a stream of kinetic impactors at Hyperion (the moon of Saturn) causing it to be ejected and flung into the inner solar system. Once this water has been delivered, Mercury could be covered in a thin layer of doped titanium dioxide photo-catalyst dust which would split the water into its constituent oxygen and hydrogen molecules, with the hydrogen rapidly being lost to space and a 0.2-0.3 bar atmosphere of pure oxygen being left behind in less than 70 years (assuming an efficiency of 30-40%).[citation needed] At this point the atmosphere would be breathable and nitrogen may be added as required to allow for plant growth in the presence of nitrates.

Temperature management may not be required, despite an equilibrium average temperature of ~159 Celsius. Millions of square kilometers at the poles have an average temperature of 0-50 Celsius, or 32-122 Fahrenheit (an area the size of Mexico at each pole with habitable temperatures). The total habitable area is likely to be even larger given that the previously mentioned photo-catalyst dust would raise the albedo from 0.12 to ~0.6, lowering the global average temperature to tens of degrees and potentially increasing the habitable area. The temperature could be further managed with the usage of solar shades.[citation needed]

Mercury has the potential to be the fastest celestial body to terraform at least partially, giving it a thin but breathable atmosphere with human-survivable pressures, a strong magnetic field, with at least a small percentage of its land at survivable temperatures at closer to the north and south poles provided water content could be constrained to avoid a runaway greenhouse effect.

Although the gravity on Earth's moon is too low to hold an atmosphere for geological spans of time, if given one, it would retain it for spans of time that are long compared to human lifespans.[33][34] Landis[34] and others[35][36] have thus proposed that it could be feasible to terraform the moon, although not all agree with that proposal.[37] Landis estimates that a 1 PSI atmosphere of pure oxygen on the moon would require on the order of two hundred trillion tons of oxygen, and suggests it could be produced by reducing the oxygen from an amount of lunar rock equivalent to a cube about fifty kilometers on an edge. Alternatively, he suggests that the water content of "fifty to a hundred comets" the size of Halley's comet would do the job, "assuming that the water doesn't splash away when the comets hit the moon."[34] Likewise, Benford calculates that terraforming the moon would require "about 100 comets the size of Halley's."[35]

It has been recently proposed[when?] that due to the effects of climate change, an interventionist program might be designed to return Earth to pre-industrial climate parameters. In order to achieve this, multiple solutions have been proposed, such as the management of solar radiation, the sequestration of carbon dioxide using geoengineering methods, and the design and release of climate altering genetically engineered organisms.[38][39]

Other possible candidates for terraforming (possibly only partial or paraterraforming) include large moons of Jupiter or Saturn (Titan, Callisto, Ganymede, Europa, Enceladus), and the dwarf planet Ceres.

Many proposals for planetary engineering involve the use of genetically engineered bacteria.[40][41]

As synthetic biology matures over the coming decades it may become possible to build designer organisms from scratch that directly manufacture desired products efficiently.[42] Lisa Nip, Ph.D. candidate at the MIT Media Lab's Molecular Machines group, said that by synthetic biology, scientists could genetically engineer humans, plants and bacteria to create Earth-like conditions on another planet.[43][44]

Gary King, microbiologist at Louisiana State University studying the most extreme organisms on Earth, notes that "synthetic biology has given us a remarkable toolkit that can be used to manufacture new kinds of organisms specially suited for the systems we want to plan for" and outlines the prospects for terraforming, saying "we'll want to investigate our chosen microbes, find the genes that code for the survival and terraforming properties that we want (like radiation and drought resistance), and then use that knowledge to genetically engineer specifically Martian-designed microbes". He sees the project's biggest bottleneck in the ability to genetically tweak and tailor the right microbes, estimating that this hurdle could take "a decade or more" to be solved. He also notes that it would be best to develop "not a single kind of microbe but a suite of several that work together".[45]

DARPA is researching the use of photosynthesizing plants, bacteria, and algae grown directly on the Mars surface that could warm up and thicken its atmosphere. In 2015 the agency and some of its research partners created an software called DTA GView a 'Google Maps of genomes', in which genomes of several organisms can be pulled up on the program to immediately show a list of known genes and where they are located in the genome. According to Alicia Jackson, deputy director of DARPA's Biological Technologies Office, they have developed a "technological toolkit to transform not just hostile places here on Earth, but to go into space not just to visit, but to stay".[46][47][48][49]

Also known as the "world house" concept, para-terraforming involves the construction of a habitable enclosure on a planet that encompasses most of the planet's usable area.[50] The enclosure would consist of a transparent roof held one or more kilometers above the surface, pressurized with a breathable atmosphere, and anchored with tension towers and cables at regular intervals. The world house concept is similar to the concept of a domed habitat, but one which covers all (or most) of the planet.

It has also been suggested that instead of or in addition to terraforming a hostile environment humans might adapt to these places by the use of genetic engineering, biotechnology and cybernetic enhancements.[51][52][53][54][55]

There is a philosophical debate within biology and ecology as to whether terraforming other worlds is an ethical endeavor. From the point of view of a cosmocentric ethic, this involves balancing the need for the preservation of human life against the intrinsic value of existing planetary ecologies.[56]Lucianne Walkowicz has even called terraforming a "planetary-scale strip mining operation".[57]

On the pro-terraforming side of the argument, there are those like Robert Zubrin, Martyn J. Fogg, Richard L. S. Taylor, and the late Carl Sagan who believe that it is humanity's moral obligation to make other worlds suitable for human life, as a continuation of the history of life-transforming the environments around it on Earth.[58][59] They also point out that Earth would eventually be destroyed if nature takes its course, so that humanity faces a very long-term choice between terraforming other worlds or allowing all terrestrial life to become extinct. Terraforming totally barren planets, it is asserted, is not morally wrong as it does not affect any other life.

The opposing argument posits that terraforming would be an unethical interference in nature, and that given humanity's past treatment of Earth, other planets may be better off without human interference.[citation needed] Still others strike a middle ground, such as Christopher McKay, who argues that terraforming is ethically sound only once we have completely assured that an alien planet does not harbor life of its own; but that if it does, we should not try to reshape it to our own use, but we should engineer its environment to artificially nurture the alien life and help it thrive and co-evolve, or even co-exist with humans.[60] Even this would be seen as a type of terraforming to the strictest of ecocentrists, who would say that all life has the right, in its home biosphere, to evolve without outside interference.

The initial cost of such projects as planetary terraforming would be massive, and the infrastructure of such an enterprise would have to be built from scratch. Such technology has not yet been developed, let alone financially feasible at the moment. John Hickman has pointed out that almost none of the current schemes for terraforming incorporate economic strategies, and most of their models and expectations seem highly optimistic.[61]

National pride, rivalries between nations, and the politics of public relations have in the past been the primary motivations for shaping space projects.[62][63] It is reasonable to assume[by whom?] that these factors would also be present in planetary terraforming efforts.[citation needed]

Terraforming is a common concept in science fiction, ranging from television, movies and novels to video games.[64]

A related concept from science fiction is xenoforming a process in which aliens change the Earth or other planets to suit their own needs, already suggested in the classic The War of the Worlds (1898) of H.G. Wells.[65]

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Terraforming - Wikipedia

The Definitive Guide To Terraforming – Universe Today

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Terraforming. Chances are youve heard that word uttered before, most likely in the context of some science fiction story. However, in recent years, thanks to renewed interest in space exploration, this word is being used in an increasingly serious manner. And rather than being talked about like a far-off prospect, the issue of terraforming other worlds is being addressed as a near-future possibility.

In recent years, weve heard luminaries like Elon Musk and Stephen Hawking claiming that humanity needs a backup location to ensure our survival, private ventures like Mars One enlisting thousands of volunteers to colonize the Red Planet, and space agencies like NASA, the ESA, and China discussing the prospect of long-term habitability on Mars or the Moon. From all indications, it looks like terraforming is yet another science-fiction concept that is migrating into the realm of science fact.

But just what does terraforming entail? Where exactly could we go about using this process? What kind of technology would we need? Does such technology already exist, or do we have to wait? How much in the way of resources would it take? And above all, what are the odds of it succeeding? Answering any or all of these questions requires a bit of digging. Not only is terraforming a time-honored concept, but as it turns out, humanity already has quite a bit of experience in this area!

To break it down, terraforming is the process whereby a hostile environment (i.e., a planet that is too cold, too hot, and/or has an unbreathable atmosphere) is altered to make it suitable for human life. This could involve modifying the temperature, atmosphere, surface topography, ecology, or all of the above to make a planet or moon more Earth-like.

The term was coined by Jack Williamson, an American science fiction writer who has also been called the Dean of science fiction (after the death of Robert Heinlein in 1988). The term appeared as part of a science-fiction story, titled Collision Orbit, published in the 1942 edition of the magazine Astounding Science Fiction. This is the first known mention of the concept, though there are examples of it appearing in fiction beforehand.

Science fiction is filled with examples of altering planetary environments to be more suitable to human life, many of which predate scientific studies by many decades. For example, in H.G. Wells War of the Worlds, he mentions at one point how the Martian invaders begin transforming Earths ecology for the sake of long-term habitation.

In Olaf Stapletons Last And First Men (1930), two chapters are dedicated to describing how humanitys descendants terraform Venus after Earth becomes uninhabitable. In the process, they commit genocide against the native aquatic life. By the 1950s and 60s, due to the beginning of the Space Age, terraforming appeared in works of science fiction with increasing frequency.

One such example is Farmer in the Sky (1950) by Robert A. Heinlein. In this novel, Heinlein offers a vision of Jupiters moon Ganymede that is being transformed into an agricultural settlement. This was a very significant work, in that it was the first where the concept of terraforming is presented as a serious and scientific matter, rather than the subject of mere fantasy.

In 1951, Arthur C. Clarke wrote the first novel in which the terraforming of Mars was presented in fiction. Titled The Sands of Mars, the story involves Martian settlers heating up the planet by converting Mars moon Phobos into a second sun and growing plants that break down the Martian sands in order to release oxygen. In his seminal book 2001: A Space Odyssey and its sequel, 2010: Odyssey Two Clarke presents a race of ancient beings (Firstborn) turning Jupiter into a second sun so that Europa will become a life-bearing planet.

Poul Anderson also wrote extensively about terraforming in the 1950s. In his 1954 novel, The Big Rain, Venus is altered through planetary engineering techniques over a very long period of time. The book was so influential that the term term Big Rain has since come to be synonymous with the terraforming of Venus. This was followed in 1958 by the Snows of Ganymede, where the Jovian moons ecology is made habitable through a similar process.

In Issac Asimovs Robot series, colonization and terraforming are performed by a powerful race of humans known as Spacers, who conduct this process on fifty planets in the known universe. In his Foundation series, humanity has effectively colonized every habitable planet in the galaxy and terraformed them to become part of the Galactic Empire.

In 1984, James Lovelock and Michael Allaby wrote what is considered by many to be one of the most influential books on terraforming. Titled The Greening of Mars, the novel explores the formation and evolution of planets, the origin of life, and Earths biosphere. The terraforming models presented in the book actually foreshadowed future debates regarding the goals of terraforming.

In the 1990s, Kim Stanley Robinson released his famous trilogy that deals with the terraforming of Mars. Known as the Mars Trilogy Red Mars, Green Mars, Blue Mars this series centers on the transformation of Mars over the course of many generations into a thriving human civilization. This was followed up in 2012 with the release of 2312, which deals with the colonization of the Solar System including the terraforming of Venus and other planets.

Countless other examples can be found in popular culture, ranging from television and print to films and video games.

In an article published by the journal Science in 1961, famed astronomer Carl Sagan proposed using planetary engineering techniques to transform Venus. This involved seeding the atmosphere of Venus with algae, which would convert the atmospheres ample supplies of water, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide into organic compounds and reduce Venus runaway greenhouse effect.

In 1973, he published an article in the journal Icarus titled Planetary Engineering on Mars, where he proposed two scenarios for transforming Mars. These included transporting low albedo material and/or planting dark plants on the polar ice caps to ensure it absorbed more heat, melted, and converted the planet to more Earth-like conditions.

In 1976, NASA addressed the issue of planetary engineering officially in a study titled On the Habitability of Mars: An Approach to Planetary Ecosynthesis. The study concluded that photosynthetic organisms, the melting of the polar ice caps, and the introduction of greenhouse gases could all be used to create a warmer, oxygen, and ozone-rich atmosphere. The first conference session on terraforming referred to as Planetary Modeling at the time- was organized that same year.

And then in March of 1979, NASA engineer and author James Oberg organized the First Terraforming Colloquium a special session at the Tenth Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, which is held annually in Houston, Texas. In 1981, Oberg popularized the concepts that were discussed at the colloquium in his book New Earths: Restructuring Earth and Other Planets.

In 1982, Planetologist Christopher McKay wrote Terraforming Mars, a paper for the Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. In it, McKay discussed the prospects of a self-regulating Martian biosphere, which included both the required methods for doing so and the ethics of it. This was the first time that the word terraforming was used in the title of a published article, and would henceforth become the preferred term.

This was followed by James Lovelock and Michael Allabys The Greening of Mars in 1984. This book was one of the first to describe a novel method of warming Mars, where chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are added to the atmosphere in order to trigger global warming. This book motivated biophysicist Robert Haynes to begin promoting terraforming as part of a larger concept known as Ecopoiesis.

Derived from the Greek words oikos (house) and poiesis (production), this word refers to the origin of an ecosystem. In the context of space exploration, it involves a form of planetary engineering where a sustainable ecosystem is fabricated from an otherwise sterile planet. As described by Haynes, this begins with the seeding of a planet with microbial life, which leads to conditions approaching that of a primordial Earth. This is then followed by the importation of plant life, which accelerates the production of oxygen, and culminates in the introduction of animal life.

In 2009, Kenneth Roy an engineer with the US Department of Energy presented his concept for a Shell World in a paper published with the Journal of British Interplanetary Sciences. Titled Shell Worlds An Approach To Terraforming Moons, Small Planets and Plutoids, his paper explored the possibility of using a large shell to encase an alien world, keeping its atmosphere contained long enough for long-term changes to take root.

There is also the concept where a usable part of a planet is enclosed in a dome in order to transform its environment, which is known as paraterraforming. This concept, originally coined by British mathematician Richard L.S. Talyor in his 1992 publication Paraterraforming The worldhouse concept, could be used to terraform sections of several planets that are otherwise inhospitable, or cannot be altered in whole.

Within the Solar System, several possible locations exist that could be well-suited to terraforming. Consider the fact that besides Earth, Venus and Mars also lie within the Suns Habitable Zone (aka. Goldilocks Zone). However, owing to Venus runaway greenhouse effect, and Mars lack of a magnetosphere, their atmospheres are either too thick and hot or too thin and cold, to sustain life as we know it. However, this could theoretically be altered through the right kind of ecological engineering.

Other potential sites in the Solar System include some of the moons that orbit the gas giants. Several Jovian (i.e. in orbit of Jupiter) and Cronian (in orbit of Saturn) moons have an abundance of water ice, and scientists have speculated that if the surface temperatures were increased, viable atmospheres could be created through electrolysis and the introduction of buffer gases.

There is even speculation that Mercury and the Moon (or at least parts thereof) could be terraformed in order to be suitable for human settlement. In these cases, terraforming would require not only altering the surface but perhaps also adjusting their rotation. In the end, each case presents its own share of advantages, challenges, and likelihoods for success. Lets consider them in order of distance from the Sun.

The terrestrial planets of our Solar System present the best possibilities for terraforming. Not only are they located closer to our Sun, and thus in a better position to absorb its energy, but they are also rich in silicates and minerals which any future colonies will need to grow food and build settlements. And as already mentioned, two of these planets (Venus and Mars) skirt the inner and outer edge of the Suns habitable zone.

Mercury:The vast majority of Mercurys surface is hostile to life, where temperatures gravitate between extremely hot and cold i.e. 700 K (427 C; 800 F) 100 K (-173 C; -280 F). This is due to its proximity to the Sun, the almost total lack of an atmosphere, and its very slow rotation. However, at the poles, temperatures are consistently low -93C (-135F) due to it being permanently shadowed.

The presence of water ice and organic molecules in the northern polar region has also been confirmed thanks to data obtained by the MESSENGER mission. Colonies could therefore be constructed in the regions, and limited terraforming (aka. paraterraforming) could take place. For example, if domes (or a single dome) of sufficient size could be built over the Kandinsky, Prokofiev, Tolkien, and Tryggvadottir craters, the northern region could be altered for human habitation.

Theoretically, this could be done by using mirrors to redirect sunlight into the domes which would gradually raise the temperature. The water ice would then melt, and when combined with organic molecules and finely ground sand, soil could be made. Plants could then be grown to produce oxygen, which combined with nitrogen gas, would produce a breathable atmosphere.

Venus:As Earths Twin, there are many possibilities and advantages to terraforming Venus. The first to propose this was Sagan with his 1961 article in Science. However, subsequent discoveries such as the high concentrations of sulfuric acid in Venus clouds made this idea unfeasible. Even if algae could survive in such an atmosphere, converting the extremely dense clouds of CO into oxygen would result in an over-dense oxygen environment.

In addition, graphite would become a by-product of the chemical reactions, which would likely form into a thick powder on the surface. This would become CO again through combustion, thus restarting the entire greenhouse effect. However, more recent proposals have been made that advocate using carbon sequestration techniques, which are arguably much more practical.

In these scenarios, chemical reactions would be relied on to convert Venus atmosphere to something breathable while also reducing its density. In one scenario, hydrogen and iron aerosol would be introduced to convert the CO in the atmosphere into graphite and water. This water would then fall to the surface, where it will cover roughly 80% of the planet due to Venus having little variation in elevation.

Another scenario calls for the introduction of vast amounts of calcium and magnesium into the atmosphere. This would sequester carbon in the form of calcium and magnesium carbonates. An advantage to this plan is that Venus already has deposits of both minerals in its mantle, which could then be exposed to the atmosphere through drilling. However, most of the minerals would have to come from off-world in order to reduce the temperature and pressure to sustainable levels.

Yet another proposal is to freeze the atmospheric carbon dioxide down to the point of liquefaction where it forms dry ice and letting it accumulate on the surface. Once there, it could be buried and would remain in a solid state due to pressure, and even mined for local and off-world use. And then there is the possibility of bombarding the surface with icy comets (which could be mined from one of Jupiters or Saturns moons) to create a liquid ocean on the surface, which would sequester carbon and aid in any other of the above processes.

Last, there is the scenario in which Venus dense atmosphere could be removed. This could be characterized as the most direct approach to thinning an atmosphere that is far too dense for human occupation. By colliding large comets or asteroids into the surface, some of the dense CO clouds could be blasted into space, thus leaving less atmosphere to be converted.

A slower method could be achieved using mass drivers (aka. electromagnetic catapults) or space elevators, which would gradually scoop up the atmosphere and either lift it into space or fire it away from the surface. And beyond altering or removing the atmosphere, there are also concepts that call for reducing the heat and pressure by either limiting sunlight (i.e. with solar shades) or altering the planets rotational velocity.

The concept of solar shades involves using either a series of small spacecraft or a single large lens to divert sunlight from a planets surface, thus reducing global temperatures. For Venus, which absorbs twice as much sunlight as Earth, solar radiation is believed to have played a major role in the runaway greenhouse effect that has made it what it is today.

Such a shade could be space-based, located in the Sun-Venus L1 Lagrangian Point, where it would not only prevent some sunlight from reaching Venus but also serve to reduce the amount of radiation Venus is exposed to. Alternately, solar shades or reflectors could be placed in the atmosphere or on the surface. This could consist of large reflective balloons, sheets of carbon nanotubes or graphene, or low-albedo material.

Placing shades or reflectors in the atmosphere offers two advantages: for one, atmospheric reflectors could be built in-situ, using locally-sourced carbon. Second, Venus atmosphere is dense enough that such structures could easily float atop the clouds. However, the amount of material would have to be large and would have to remain in place long after the atmosphere had been modified. Also, since Venus already has highly reflective clouds, any approach would have to significantly surpass its current albedo (0.65) to make a difference.

Also, the idea of speeding up Venus rotation has been floating around as a possible means of terraforming. If Venus could be spun-up to the point where its diurnal (day-night) cycle is similar to Earths, the planet might just begin to generate a stronger magnetic field. This would have the effect of reducing the amount of solar wind (and hence radiation) from reaching the surface, thus making it safer for terrestrial organisms.

The Moon:As Earths closest celestial body, colonizing the Moon would be comparatively easy compared to other bodies. But when it comes to terraforming the Moon, the possibilities and challenges closely resemble those of Mercury. For starters, the Moon has an atmosphere that is so thin that it can only be referred to as an exosphere. Whats more, the volatile elements that are necessary for life are in short supply (i.e. hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon).

These problems could be addressed by capturing comets that contain water ices and volatiles and crashing them into the surface. The comets would sublimate, dispersing these gases and water vapor to create an atmosphere. These impacts would also liberate water that is contained in the lunar regolith, which could eventually accumulate on the surface to form natural bodies of water.

The transfer of momentum from these comets would also get the Moon rotating more rapidly, speeding up its rotation so that it would no longer be tidally locked. A Moon that was sped up to rotate once on its axis every 24 hours would have a steady diurnal cycle, which would make colonization and adapting to life on the Moon easier.

There is also the possibility of paraterraforming parts of the Moon in a way that would be similar to terraforming Mercurys polar region. In the Moons case, this would take place in the Shackleton Crater, where scientists have already found evidence of water ice. Using solar mirrors and a dome, this crater could be turned into a micro-climate where plants could be grown and a breathable atmosphere created.

Mars:When it comes to terraforming, Mars is the most popular destination. There are several reasons for this, ranging from its proximity to Earth, its similarities to Earth, and the fact that it once had an environment that was very similar to Earths which included a thicker atmosphere and the presence of warm, flowing water on the surface. Lastly, it is currently believed that Mars may have additional sources of water beneath its surface.

In brief, Mars has a diurnal and seasonal cycle that are very close to what we experience here on Earth. In the former case, a single day on Mars lasts 24 hours and 40 minutes. In the latter case, and owing to Mars similarly-tilted axis (25.19 compared to Earths 23), Mars experiences seasonal changes that are very similar to Earths. Though a single season on Mars lasts roughly twice as long, the temperature variation that results is very similar 178 C (320F) compared to Earths 160 C (278F).

Beyond these, Mars would need to undergo vast transformations in order for human beings to live on its surface. The atmosphere would need to be thickened drastically, and its composition would need to be changed. Currently, Mars atmosphere is composed of 96% carbon dioxide, 1.93% argon, and 1.89% nitrogen, and the air pressure is equivalent to only 1% of Earths at sea level.

Above all, Mars lacks a magnetosphere, which means that its surface receives significantly more radiation than we are used to here on Earth. In addition, it is believed that Mars once had a magnetosphere and that the disappearance of this magnetic field led to the stripping of Mars atmosphere by solar wind. This in turn is what led Mars to become the cold, desiccated place it is today.

Ultimately, this means that in order for the planet to become habitable by human standards, its atmosphere would need to be significantly thickened and the planet significantly warmed. The composition of the atmosphere would need to change as well, from the current CO-heavy mix to a nitrogen-oxygen balance of about 70/30. And above all, the atmosphere would need to be replenished every so often to compensate for the loss.

Luckily, the first three requirements are largely complementary, and present a wide range of possible solutions. For starters, Mars atmosphere could be thickened and the planet warmed by bombarding its polar regions with meteors. These would cause the poles to melt, releasing their deposits of frozen carbon dioxide and water into the atmosphere and triggering a greenhouse effect.

The introduction of volatile elements, such as ammonia and methane, would also help to thicken the atmosphere and trigger warming. Both could be mined from the icy moons of the outer Solar System, particularly from the moons of Ganymede, Callisto, and Titan. These could also be delivered to the surface via meteoric impacts.

After impacting on the surface, the ammonia ice would sublimate and break down into hydrogen and nitrogen the hydrogen interacting with the CO to form water and graphite, while the nitrogen acts as a buffer gas. The methane, meanwhile, would act as a greenhouse gas that would further enhance global warming. In addition, the impacts would throw tons of dust into the air, further fueling the warming trend.

In time, Mars ample supplies of water ice which can be found not only in the poles but in vast subsurface deposits of permafrost would all sublimate to form warm, flowing water. And with significantly increased air pressure and a warmer atmosphere, humans might be able to venture out onto the surface without the need for pressure suits.

However, the atmosphere will still need to be converted into something breathable. This will be far more time-consuming, as the process of converting the atmospheric CO into oxygen gas will likely take centuries. In any case, several possibilities have been suggested, which include converting the atmosphere through photosynthesis either with cyanobacteria or Earth plants and lichens.

Other suggestions include building orbital mirrors, which would be placed near the poles and direct sunlight onto the surface to trigger a cycle of warming by causing the polar ice caps to melt and release their CO gas. Using dark dust from Phobos and Deimos to reduce the surfaces albedo, thus allowing it to absorb more sunlight, has also been suggested.

In short, there are plenty of options for terraforming Mars. And many of them, if not being readily available, are at least on the table

Beyond the Inner Solar System, there are several sites that would make for good terraforming targets as well. Particularly around Jupiter and Saturn, there are several sizable moons some of which are larger than Mercury that have an abundance of water in the form of ice (and in some cases, maybe even interior oceans).

At the same time, many of these same moons contain other necessary ingredients for functioning ecosystems, such as frozen volatiles like ammonia and methane. Because of this, and as part of our ongoing desire to explore farther out into our Solar System, many proposals have been made to seed these moons with bases and research stations. Some plans even include possible terraforming to make them suitable for long-term habitation.

The Jovian Moons:Jupiters largest moons, Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto known as the Galileans, after their founder (Galileo Galilei) have long been the subject of scientific interest. For decades, scientists have speculated about the possible existence of a subsurface ocean on Europa, based on theories about the planets tidal heating (a consequence of its eccentric orbit and orbital resonance with the other moons).

Analysis of images provided by the Voyager 1 and Galileo probes added weight to this theory, showing regions where it appeared that the subsurface ocean had melted through. Whats more, the presence of this warm water ocean has also led to speculation about the existence of life beneath Europas icy crust possibly around hydrothermal vents at the core-mantle boundary.

Because of this potential for habitability, Europa has also been suggested as a possible site for terraforming. As the argument goes, if the surface temperature could be increased, and the surface ice melted, the entire planet could become an ocean world. Sublimation of the ice, which would release water vapor and gaseous volatiles, would then be subject to electrolysis (which already produces a thin oxygen atmosphere).

However, Europa has no magnetosphere of its own and lies within Jupiters powerful magnetic field. As a result, its surface is exposed to significant amounts of radiation 540 rem of radiation per day compared to about 0.0030 rem per year here on Earth and any atmosphere we create would begin to be stripped away by Jupiter. Ergo, radiation shielding would need to be put in place that could deflect the majority of this radiation.

And then there is Ganymede, the third most-distant of Jupiters Galilean moons. Much like Europa, it is a potential site of terraforming and presents numerous advantages. For one, it is the largest moon in our Solar System, larger than our own moon and even larger than the planet Mercury. In addition, it also has ample supplies of water ice, is believed to have an interior ocean, and even has its own magnetosphere.

Hence, if the surface temperature were increased and the ice sublimated, Ganymedes atmosphere could be thickened. Like Europa, it would also become an ocean planet, and its own magnetosphere would allow for it to hold on to more of its atmosphere. However, Jupiters magnetic field still exerts a powerful influence over the planet, which means radiation shields would still be needed.

Lastly, there is Callisto, the fourth-most distant of the Galileans. Here too, abundant supplies of water ice, volatiles, and the possibility of an interior ocean all point towards the potential for habitability. But in Callistos case, there is the added bonus of it being beyond Jupiters magnetic field, which reduces the threat of radiation and atmospheric loss.

The process would begin with surface heating, which would sublimate the water ice and Callistos supplies of frozen ammonia. From these oceans, electrolysis would lead to the formation of an oxygen-rich atmosphere, and the ammonia could be converted into nitrogen to act as a buffer gas. However, since the majority of Callisto is ice, it would mean that the planet would lose considerable mass and have no continents. Again, an ocean planet would result, necessitating floating cities or massive colony ships.

The Cronians Moons:Much like the Jovian Moons, Saturns Moons (also known as the Cronian) present opportunities for terraforming. Again, this is due to the presence of water ice, interior oceans, and volatile elements. Titan, Saturns largest moon, also has an abundance of methane that comes in liquid form (the methane lakes around its northern polar region) and in gaseous form in its atmosphere. Large caches of ammonia are also believed to exist beneath the surface ice.

Titan is also the only natural satellite to have a dense atmosphere (one and half times the pressure of Earths) and the only planet outside of Earth where the atmosphere is nitrogen-rich. Such a thick atmosphere would mean that it would be far easier to equalize pressure for habitats on the planet. Whats more, scientists believe this atmosphere is a prebiotic environment rich in organic chemistry i.e. similar to Earths early atmosphere (only much colder).

As such, converting it to something Earth-like would be feasible. First, the surface temperature would need to be increased. Since Titan is very distant from the Sun and already has an abundance of greenhouse gases, this could only be accomplished through orbital mirrors. This would sublimate the surface ice, releasing ammonia beneath, which would lead to more heating.

The next step would involve converting the atmosphere to something breathable. As already noted, Titans atmosphere is nitrogen-rich, which would remove the need for introducing a buffer gas. And with the availability of water, oxygen could be introduced by generating it through electrolysis. At the same time, the methane and other hydrocarbons would have to be sequestered, in order to prevent an explosive mixture with the oxygen.

But given the thickness and multi-layered nature of Titans ice, which is estimated to account for half of its mass, the moon would be very much an ocean planet- i.e. with no continents or landmasses to build on. So once again, any habitats would have to take the form of either floating platforms or large ships.

Enceladus is another possibility, thanks to the recent discovery of a subsurface ocean. Analysis by the Cassini space probe of the water plumes erupting from its southern polar region also indicated the presence of organic molecules. As such, terraforming it would be similar to terraforming Jupiters moon of Europa, and would yield a similar ocean moon.

Again, this would likely have to involve orbital mirrors, given Enceladus distance from our Sun. Once the ice began to sublimate, electrolysis would generate oxygen gas. The presence of ammonia in the subsurface ocean would also be released, helping to raise the temperature and serving as a source of nitrogen gas, with which to buffer the atmosphere.

Exoplanets:In addition to the Solar System, extra-solar planets (aka. exoplanets) are also potential sites for terraforming. Of the 1,941 confirmed exoplanets discovered so far, these planets are those that have been designated Earth-like. In other words, they are terrestrial planets that have atmospheres and, like Earth, occupy the region around a star where the average surface temperature allows for liquid water (aka. habitable zone).

The first planet confirmed by Kepler to have an average orbital distance that placed it within its stars habitable zone was Kepler-22b. This planet is located about 600 light-years from Earth in the constellation of Cygnus, was first observed on May 12th, 2009, and then confirmed on Dec 5th, 2011. Based on all the data obtained, scientists believe that this world is roughly 2.4 times the radius of Earth, and is likely covered in oceans or has a liquid or gaseous outer shell.

In addition, there are star systems with multiple Earth-like planets occupying their habitable zones. Gliese 581 is a good example, a red dwarf star that is located 20.22 light-years away from Earth in the Libra constellation. Here, three confirmed and two possible planets exist, two of which are believed to orbit within the stars habitable zone. These include the confirmed planet Gliese 581 d and the hypothetical Gliese 581 g.

Tau Ceti is another example. This G-class star, which is located roughly 12 light-years from Earth in the constellation Cetus, has five possible planets orbiting it. Two of these are Super-Earths that are believed to orbit the stars habitable zone Tau Ceti e and Tau Ceti f. However, Tau Ceti e is believed to be too close for anything other than Venus-like conditions to exist on its surface.

In all cases, terraforming the atmospheres of these planets would most likely involve the same techniques used to terraform Venus and Mars, though to varying degrees. For those located on the outer edge of their habitable zones, terraforming could be accomplished by introducing greenhouse gases or covering the surface with low albedo material to trigger global warming. On the other end, solar shades and carbon sequestering techniques could reduce temperatures to the point where the planet is considered hospitable.

When addressing the issue of terraforming, there is the inevitable question why should we? Given the expenditure in resources, the time involved, and other challenges that naturally arise (see below), what reasons are there to engage in terraforming? As already mentioned, there are the reasons cited by Musk, about the need to have a backup location to prevent any particular cataclysm from claiming all of humanity.

Putting aside for the moment the prospect of a nuclear holocaust, there is also the likelihood that life will become untenable on certain parts of our planet in the coming century. As the NOAA reported in March of 2015, carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere have now surpassed 400 ppm, a level not seen since the Pliocene Era when global temperatures and sea levels were significantly higher.

And as a series of scenarios computed by NASA show, this trend is likely to continue until 2100, and with serious consequences. In one scenario, carbon dioxide emissions will level off at about 550 ppm toward the end of the century, resulting in an average temperature increase of 2.5 C (4.5 F). In the second scenario, carbon dioxide emissions rise to about 800 ppm, resulting in an average increase of about 4.5 C (8 F). Whereas the increases predicted in the first scenario are sustainable, in the latter scenario, life will become untenable on many parts of the planet.

As a result of this, creating a long-term home for humanity on Mars, the Moon, Venus, or elsewhere in the Solar System may be necessary. In addition to offering us other locations from which to extract resources, cultivate food, and as a possible outlet for population pressures, having colonies on other worlds could mean the difference between long-term survival and extinction.

There is also the argument that humanity is already well-versed in altering planetary environments. For centuries, humanitys reliance on industrial machinery, coal, and fossil fuels has had a measurable effect on Earths environment. And whereas the Greenhouse Effect that we have triggered here was not deliberate, our experience and knowledge in creating it here on Earth could be put to good use on planets where surface temperatures need to be raised artificially.

In addition, it has also been argued that working with environments where there is a runaway Greenhouse Effect i.e. Venus could yield valuable knowledge that could in turn be used here on Earth. Whether it is the use of extreme bacteria, introducing new gases, or mineral elements to sequester carbon, testing these methods out on Venus could help us to combat Climate Change here at home.

It has also been argued that Mars similarities to Earth are a good reason to terraform it. Essentially, Mars once resembled Earth, until its atmosphere was stripped away, causing it to lose virtually all the liquid water on its surface. Ergo, terraforming it would be tantamount to returning it to its once-warm and watery glory. The same argument could be made of Venus, where efforts to alter it would restore it to what it was before a runaway Greenhouse Effect turned it into the harsh, extremely hot world it is today.

Last, but not least, there is the argument that colonizing the Solar System could usher in an age of post-scarcity. If humanity were to build outposts and based on other worlds, mine the asteroid belt, and harvest the resources of the Outer Solar System, we would effectively have enough minerals, gases, energy, and water resources to last us indefinitely. It could also help trigger a massive acceleration in human development, defined by leaps and bounds in technological and social progress.

When it comes right down to it, all of the scenarios listed above suffer from one or more of the following problems:

Case in point, all of the potential ideas for terraforming Venus and Mars involve infrastructure that does not yet exist and would be very expensive to create. For instance, the orbital shade concept that would cool Venus calls for a structure that would need to be four times the diameter of Venus itself (if it were positioned at L1). It would therefore require megatons of material, all of which would have to be assembled on site.

In contrast, increasing the speed of Venuss rotation would require energy many orders of magnitude greater than the construction of orbiting solar mirrors. As with removing Venus atmosphere, the process would also require a significant number of impactors that would have to be harnessed from the outer solar System mainly from the Kuiper Belt.

In order to do this, a large fleet of spaceships would be needed to haul them, and they would need to be equipped with advanced drive systems that could make the trip in a reasonable amount of time. Currently, no such drive systems exist, and conventional methods ranging from ion engines to chemical propellants are neither fast or economical enough.

To illustrate, NASAs New Horizons mission took more than 11 years to get make its historic rendezvous with Pluto in the Kuiper Belt, using conventional rockets and the gravity-assist method. Meanwhile, the Dawn mission, which relied on ionic propulsion, took almost four years to reach Vesta in the Asteroid Belt. Neither method is practical for making repeated trips to the Kuiper Belt and hauling back icy comets and asteroids, and humanity has nowhere near the number of ships we would need to do this.

The Moons proximity makes it an attractive option for terraforming. But again, the resources needed which would likely include several hundred comets would again need to be imported from the outer Solar System. And while Mercurys resources could be harvested in-situ or brought from Earth to paraterraform its northern polar region, the concept still calls for a large fleet of ships and robot builders which do not yet exist.

The outer Solar System presents a similar problem. In order to begin terraforming these moons, we would need infrastructure between here and there, which would mean bases on the Moon, Mars, and within the Asteroid Belt. Here, ships could refuel as they transport materials to the Jovian sand Cronian systems, and resources could be harvested from all three of these locations as well as within the systems themselves.

But of course, it would take many, many generations (or even centuries) to build all of that, and at considerable cost. Ergo, any attempts at terraforming the outer Solar System would have to wait until humanity had effectively colonized the inner Solar System. And terraforming the Inner Solar System will not be possible until humanity has plenty of space hauler on hand, not to mention fast ones!

The necessity for radiation shields also presents a problem. The size and cost of manufacturing shields that could deflect Jupiters magnetic field would be astronomical. And while the resources could be harvested from the nearby Asteroid Belt, transporting and assembling them in space around the Jovian Moons would again require many ships and robotic workers. And again, there would have to be extensive infrastructure between Earth and the Jovian system before any of this could proceed.

As for item three, there are plenty of problems that could result from terraforming. For instance, transforming Jupiters and Saturns moons into ocean worlds could be pointless, as the volume of liquid water would constitute a major portion of the moons overall radius. Combined with their low surface gravities, high orbital velocities, and the tidal effects of their parent planets, this could lead to severely high waves on their surfaces. In fact, these moons could become totally unstable as a result of being altered.

There are also several questions about the ethics of terraforming. Basically, altering other planets in order to make them more suitable to human needs raises the natural question of what would happen to any lifeforms already living there. If in fact Mars and other Solar System bodies have indigenous microbial (or more complex) life, which many scientists suspect, then altering their ecology could impact or even wipe out these lifeforms. In short, future colonists and terrestrial engineers would effectively be committing genocide.

Another argument that is often made against terraforming is that any effort to alter the ecology of another planet does not present any immediate benefits. Given the cost involved, what possible incentive is there to commit so much time, resources, and energy to such a project? While the idea of utilizing the resources of the Solar System makes sense in the long run, the short-term gains are far less tangible.

Basically, harvested resources from other worlds is not economically viable when you can extract them here at home for much less. And real-estate is only the basis of an economic model if the real estate itself is desirable. While MarsOne has certainly shown us that there are plenty of human beings who are willing to make a one-way trip to Mars, turning the Red Planet, Venus, or elsewhere into a new frontier where people can buy up land will first require some serious advances in technology, some serious terraforming, or both.

Read more from the original source:

The Definitive Guide To Terraforming - Universe Today

Could we really terraform Mars? | Space

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Paul M. Sutter (opens in new tab) is an astrophysicist at SUNY (opens in new tab) Stony Brook and the Flatiron Institute, host of Ask a Spaceman (opens in new tab) and Space Radio (opens in new tab), and author of How to Die in Space (opens in new tab).

Almost every sci-fi story begins (and sometimes ends) with the terraforming of Mars to turn it into a more hospitable world.

But with its frigid temperatures, remoteness from the sun and general dustiness, changing Mars to be more Earth-like is more challenging than it seems (and it already seems pretty tough).

Incredible technology: How to use 'shells' to terraform a planet

The thing is, Mars used to be cool. And by cool, I mean warm. Billions of years ago, Mars had a thick, carbon-rich atmosphere, lakes and oceans of liquid water, and probably even white fluffy clouds. And this was at a time when our sun was smaller and weaker, but occasionally much more violent than it is today in other words, our solar system is a much more favorable place for life now than it was 3 billion years ago, and yet Mars is red and dead.

Sadly, Mars was doomed from the start. It's smaller than Earth, which means it cooled off much faster. The core of our planet is still molten, and that spinning blob of iron-rich goo in the center of Earth powers our strong magnetic field. The magnetic field is a literal force field, capable of stopping and deflecting the solar wind, which is a never-ending stream of high-energy particles blasting out of the sun.

When Mars cooled off, its core solidified and its magnetic force field shut off, exposing its atmosphere to the ravages of the solar wind. Over the course of 100 million years or so, the solar wind stripped away the Martian atmosphere. When the air pressure dropped to near-vacuum, the oceans on the surface boiled away and the planet dried up.

It's so tantalizing: Mars was once Earth-like, and so is there any way to bring it back to its former glory?

Thankfully (or unfortunately, depending on your point of view), we humans have plenty of experience in warming up planets. Inadvertently, through our centuries of carbon emissions, we've raised the surface temperature of Earth (opens in new tab) through a simple greenhouse mechanism. We pump out a lot of carbon dioxide, which is really good at letting sunlight in and preventing thermal radiation from escaping, so it acts like a giant invisible blanket over Earth.

The increased heat encourages moisture to leave the oceans and play around as a vapor in the atmosphere, which adds its own blanketing layer, adding to the increase in temperature, which evaporates more water, which warms the planet more, and before you know if prime beachfront property is now better suited as an underwater submarine base.

But if it works on Earth, maybe it could work on Mars. We can't access the OG Martian atmosphere, because it's completely lost to space, but Mars does have enormous deposits of water ice and frozen carbon dioxide in its polar caps, and some more laced just underneath the surface across the planet.

If we could somehow warm the caps, that might release enough carbon into the atmosphere to kick-start a greenhouse warming trend. All we would need to do is kick back, watch and wait for a few centuries for physics to do its thing and turn Mars into a much less nasty place.

Unfortunately, that simple idea probably isn't going to work.

Related: What would it be like to live on Mars?

The first issue is developing the technology to warm the caps. Proposals have ranged from sprinkling dust all across the poles (to make them reflect less light and warm them up) to building a giant space mirror to put some high-beam action on the poles. But any ideas require radical leaps in technology, and a manufacturing presence in space far beyond what we are currently capable of (in the case of the space mirror, we would need to mine about 200,000 tons of aluminum in space, whereas we are currently capable of mining well, zero tons of aluminum in space).

And then there's the unfortunate realization that there isn't nearly enough CO2 locked up in Mars to trigger a decent warming trend. Currently Mars has less than 1% of the air pressure on Earth at sea level. If you could evaporate every molecule of CO2 and H2O on Mars and get it into the atmosphere, the Red Planet would have 2% of the air pressure on Earth. You would need twice as much atmosphere to prevent the sweat and oils on your skin from boiling, and 10 times that much to not need a pressure suit.

Let's not even talk about the lack of oxygen.

To counter this lack of easily accessible greenhouse gases (opens in new tab), there are some radical proposals. Maybe we could have factories devoted to pumping out chlorofluorocarbons, which are a really nasty greenhouse gas. Or maybe we could shove in some ammonia-rich comets from the outer solar system. Ammonia itself is a great greenhouse blanket, and it eventually dissociates into harmless nitrogen, which makes up the bulk of our own atmosphere.

Assuming we could overcome the technological challenges associated with those proposals, there's still one major hurdle: the lack of a magnetic field. Unless we protect Mars, every molecule that we pump (or crash) into the atmosphere is vulnerable to getting blasted away by the solar wind. Like trying to build a pyramid from desert sand, it's not going to be easy.

Creative solutions abound. Maybe we could build a giant electromagnet in space to deflect away the solar wind. Maybe we could girdle Mars with a superconductor, giving it an artificial magnetosphere.

Naturally, we don't have nearly the sophistication to realize either of those solutions. Could we ever, possibly, terraform Mars and make it more hospitable? Sure, it's possible there's no fundamental law of physics getting in our way.

But don't hold your breath.

Learn more by listening to the episode "Could we really terraform Mars? (opens in new tab)" on the Ask A Spaceman podcast, available on iTunes (opens in new tab) and on the Web at http://www.askaspaceman.com (opens in new tab). Ask your own question on Twitter using #AskASpaceman or by following Paul @PaulMattSutter (opens in new tab) and facebook.com/PaulMattSutter (opens in new tab).

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Could we really terraform Mars? | Space

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Yet, Mars might not be the best candidate for terraforming. A few scientists say Venus could be easier. For one thing, Venus and Earth have a lot in common. Each has a thick atmosphere, and both are nearly the same mass and size. Unlike Mars, the atmosphere on Venus would give scientists something to work with.

Venus boasts an atmosphere chiefly composed of carbon-dioxide. It covers the planet like an electric blanket, heating the surface to an average temperature of 872 F (467 C). Venus is so hot that most life, including human life, cannot possibly exist. Some organisms, however, do thrive in such harsh environments. They're called hyperthermophiles, and they can survive in temperatures above 176 F (80 C) [source: Griffith].

Some scientists believe if we seed Venus with these tiny, heat-loving creatures, at least the kind that chow down on sulfur, which is also present in the Venetian atmosphere, they would flourish on the inhospitable planet, converting all that carbon dioxide into oxygen, which other life-forms then can use to grow and thrive [source: Griffith].

Another proposal involves shading Venus with giant sails to cool the atmosphere until all the carbon dioxide falls to the surface. And still others say building giant floating cities to suck the carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere so its molecules could be split into oxygen and carbon could work. The more cities there are, the theory goes, the more their shadows blanket the surface. As a result, the atmosphere cools [source: Cain].

Of course, there is no water on Venus, and water is essential for life. So what's a mad scientist to do? Slam a few comets into the planet, of course. Why should we do that? There's a dearth of hydrogen on Venus because it all escaped into space when the planet formed. Consequently, there's no water. But comets are dirty snowballs that contain ice. If we were to nudge a few comets toward Venus so bits of ice broke off and slammed onto the surface, water molecules would eventually form on the planet. The comets also would bring carbon dioxide, water, methane and ammonia [sources: Benford].

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How Terraforming Works | HowStuffWorks