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The Complicated History Behind Womens Reproductive Rights

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Often the conversation surrounding the reproductive rights of women focuses on present restrictions, controversy, and debate. Repeatedly, the historical context of the access to contraceptives and abortions is neglected, and many discussions about Womens History Month neglect what many consider to be a sensitive topic.

But this hypersensitivity raises the question: how did the feminist movement reach this hyper-partisan and volatile attitude towards reproductive rights?

One of the first major proponents of birth control was Margaret Sanger, who was active between the 1910s and 1950s and advocated for working-class women. Sanger invented the term birth control to frame contraceptives as a solution to unwanted pregnancies while indicating that women were assuming responsibility over their own bodies.

Margaret Sanger protesting being prevented from discussing Birth Control in Boston, Massachusetts. (Photograph by Bettmann/Contributor)

In an effort to normalize birth control use among middle class women and adjust to changing attitudes, Sanger founded the Birth Control League of America, which later became known as "Planned Parenthood" to underscore the family while mitigating radical feminist undertones.

Gradually, Sanger and other advocates' efforts to transform the framework of birth control into a both political and medical issue triumphed. By the 1940s, however, the birth control movement was forced to accommodate a conservative society that romanticized traditional family values.

Despite the seemingly uncontroversial history, the movement towards birth control is interconnected with the popular early 20th century philosophy of eugenics, which Sanger herself has been connected to. Sanger advocated for only the fit to reproduce and consequently to sterilize women who were deemed unfit. These unfit women were often women of color or disabled women who were accused of possessing genetic factors that predisposed their children to criminality and feeblemindedness.

After World War II, the eugenics movement attempted to dissociate itself from Nazism by reframing sterilization as entirely voluntary for all Americans, but with emphasis on the unfit. This framing of sterilization that stressed the importance of family made this neo-eugenics movement much more palatable to the general population.

Up to this point, the actual implementation of birth control was both unreliable and extremely uncomfortable. But the scientific breakthrough of the birth control pill in 1960, birth control not only became accessible and reliable, but widely accepted, pivoting the main focus of reproductive rights to sterilization, and eventually, abortion.

Sterilization was returned to the public consciousness as many white middle and upper class women desired a permanent solution to birth control. But for women of color, sterilization represented a much darker concept. Many Black, Mexican American, and Native American women were forced to undergo sterilization procedures because they were deemed unsuitable for carrying children.

This gross and racist abuse of sterilization was amplified in the 1973 case of the Relf sisters, who were sterilized at 12 and 14 years old by the consent of their mother, who was illiterate and thought she was signing for birth control shots. This case sparked outrage among women, who viewed the case as a shocking violation of consent that contradicted the fundamental frame of sterilization as a completely autonomous decision.

The Relf Sisters, pictured on the right (Photographer Unknown)

Its important to note that up until 1967, the Reproductive Rights Movement was almost completely unconcerned with the issue of abortion. Abortion was considered to be an issue exclusive to the medical community and a covert operation for desperate women.

This portrayal and perception of abortion is central to the consequent advocacy for abortion wherein abortion was a right that was directly linked to the fight for equality, making abortion a fixture of an everyday womans fight for equality. This effort is exemplified through the phrase the personal is political, which was adapted by many abortion advocates.

With this increased advocacy in mind, the landmark case of Roe v. Wade in 1973, which made abortion an individual right, indelibly transformed the fight for reproductive rights as well as the relationship between feminism and reproductive rights.

The response to Roe v. Wade and the subsequent political controversy is evident in the modern pro-life and pro-choice movements. These movements were meticulously developed in such a way that allowed them to maintain a significant number of supporters more than 45 years after the decision.

The pro-life movement is entirely based on the perception of abortion as an issue of morality, often citing religious reasons for abortion being sinful and "murder". These religious reasons are rooted in the belief that sex is solely for procreation within a marriage and that the pro-life movement is meant to fight a culture of death.

Its important to specify that no social movement should be generalized to exclusively include a specific group, and by no means is religion the sole reason why there are supporters of the pro-life movement. But it should be mentioned that religion was an integral part of the initial framework of the pro-life movement. Religious beliefs and opposition to abortion have been shown to be correlated in numerous studies.

Conversely, the pro-choice movement surrounds the idea that morality is irrelevant to the debate surrounding abortion and that fundamentally women should be the sole decision-makers regarding their bodies. This ideal of bodily autonomy has consistently been portrayed as a democratic principle. The pro-choice movement has also expanded the realm of pro-choice issues by also advocating for sex education, affordable childcare, sexual health, neonatal care, and access to adoption rights.

This expansion of what falls under the umbrella of reproductive rights reflects a prominent grievance of women of color, who not so much desired abortions or sterilizations but liberation from the miserable social conditions which dissuade them from bringing new lives into the world.

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The Complicated History Behind Womens Reproductive Rights

IELTS Reading Practice Test 74 with Answers

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READING PASSAGE 3

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 28-40 which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.

A

At this point, you might be wondering: what does deafhood mean? Is it a synonym for deafness? Is it a slightly more politically correct term to express the very same concept youve grown accustomed to-a person who lacks the power of hearing, or a person whose hearing is impaired? Whats wrong with terms like hard of hearing or deafness? Have they not represented the deaf community just fine for the past few centuries? Who came up with the term Deafhood anyway, and why?

B

The term Deafhood was first coined in 1993 by Dr Paddy Ladd, a deaf scholar in the Deaf Studies Department at the University of Bristol in England. First explored through his doctoral dissertation in 1998, and later elaborated on in his 2003 book, Understanding Deaf Culture In Search of Deafhood, the idea behind Deafhood is twofold: first, it seeks to collect everything that is already known about the life, culture, politics, etc. of Sign Language Peoples (SLPs); secondly, it attempts to remove the limitations imposed on SLPs through their colonization from hearing people.

C

In order to understand what Deafhood represents, its first important to understand what is meant by colonisation. To do that, we need to examine two terms: Oralism and Audism. Oralism is a philosophy that first emerged in the late 19th century, and which suggests that reduced use of sign language would be more beneficial to SLPs, as it would allow them to integrate better to the hearing world. In that respect, sign language is dismissively regarded as a mere obstacle to listening skills and acquisition of speech-treated, in effect, in the same manner as the languages of other peoples who were oppressed and colonised, e.g. the Maori in New Zealand, or the Aborigines in Australia. Audism, however, is an even more sinister ideology: first coined in 1975 by Dr Tom Humphries of the University of California in San Diego, it describes the belief that deaf people are somehow inferior to hearing people, and that deafhood or, in this case, we should say deafness is a flaw, a terrible disability that needs to be eliminated. It is the effect of these two ideologies that Deafhood seeks to counter, by presenting SLPs in a positive light, not as patients who require treatment.

D

But even if we understand the oppression that SLPs have suffered at the hands of hearing people since the late 1800s, and even if we acknowledge that deafness is a medical term with negative connotations that need to be replaced, that doesnt mean its easy to explain what the term Deafhood represents exactly. This is because Deafhood is, as Dr Donald Grushkin puts it, a physical, emotional, mental, spiritual, cultural and linguistic journey that every deaf person is invited-but not obligated-to embark on.

E

Deafhood is essentially a search for understanding: what does being Deaf mean? How did deaf people in the past define themselves, and what did they believe to be their reasons for existing before Audism was conceived? Why are some people born deaf? Are they biologically defective, or are there more positive reasons for their existence? What do terms like Deaf Art or Deaf Culture actually mean? What is the Deaf Way or doing things? True Deafhood is achieved when a deaf person feels comfortable with who they are and connected to the rest of the deaf community through use of their natural language, but the journey there might differ.

F

Aside from all those questions, however, Deafhood also seeks to counter the eect of what is known as neo-eugenics. Neo-eugenics, as described by Patrick Boudreault at the 2005 California Association of the Deaf Conference, is a modern manifestation of what has traditionally been defined as eugenics, i.e. an attempt to eradicate any human characteristics which are perceived as negative. Deaf people have previously been a target of eugenicists through the aforementioned ideologies of Audism and Oralism, but recent developments in science and society-such as cochlear implants or genetic engineering-mean that Deafhood is once again under threat, and needs to be protected. The only way to do this is by celebrating the communitys history, language, and countless contributions to the world, and confronting those who want to see it gone.

G

So, how do we go forward? We should start by decolonising SLPs-by embracing Deafhood for what it is, removing all the negative connotations that surround it and accepting that deaf people are neither broken nor incomplete. This is a task not just for hearing people, but for deaf people as well, who have for decades internalised societys unfavourable views of them. We should also seek recognition of the deaf communitys accomplishments, as well as official recognition of sign languages around the world by their respective governments. Effectively, what we should do is ask ourselves: how would the Deaf community be like, had it never been colonised by the mainstream world? And whatever it is it would be like, we should all together-hearing and Deaf alike-strive to achieve it.

The reading passage has seven paragraphs, A-G.

Which paragraph contains the following information?

Write the correct letter, A-G, in boxes 28-33 on your answer sheet.

28 Examples of other groups treated the same way as deaf people

29 Why the word deafness is no longer appropriate

30 The definition of the word dear

31 Why deaf people might sometimes think negatively of themselves

32 How one can attain deafhood

33 Where the word deafhood came from

34 Why deafhood is currently imperilled

Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

Write your answers in boxes 35-37 on your answer sheet.

35 According to Dr Paddy Ladd, Deafhood

A is a more appropriate term than hard of hearing.

B doesnt colonise SLPs as much as deafness does.

C strives to get rid of the effects of colonisation.

D contributes positively to the life and culture of deaf people.

36 Oralism suggests that

A SLPs have no use for sign language.

B SLPs dont belong in the hearing world.

C hearing people are superior to SLPs.

D SLPs are unable to acquire speech.

37 Aborigines in Australia are similar to deaf people because

A eugenicists also tried to eradicate them.

B they were also considered inferior by their oppressors.

C their languages were also disrespected.

D their languages were also colonised.

Answer the questions below with words taken from Reading Passage 3.

Use NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS for each answer.

38 What should deaf people use to communicate with each other, according to deafhood?

39 Who has used oralism and audism to attack the deaf community?

40 What does the deaf community strive to achieve for sign language worldwide?

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IELTS Reading Practice Test 74 with Answers

9 Breathtaking City Concepts That Could Be Your Future … – Zipcar

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Its fun to imagine what the cities of the future will look like. Underwater bubble-homes? Sure. Cities that float? Why not? Houses that look like leafy trees? Were on board!

Weve got to give credit, then, to the artists, architects, and other creative voices whove dreamed up these futuristic urban visions. These city concepts span from garden bridges to self-contained biospheres andwhile they probably wont all make it past the drawing boardwere hoping that future urban planners take note. (Seriously, we definitely want to live in a floating city.)

Picture it: a self-contained community that floats on waterand exists entirely off-the-grid, thanks to its sustainability and reliance on clean energy sources. Meet Seasteading Institutes Floating City Project, which isnt just a hallucinatory oasis. Negotiations for this project are currently underway, and the very first floating city could be unveiled as early as 2020.

Water isnt just a one-time solution to urban over-crowding. Its an idea thats also driven innovator Phil Pauleys Sub-Biosphere 2, which is envisioned as a fully self-contained community that floats on the waters surface during good weatherand goes submarine when the waves get rough.

Envisioning what the worlds best-known cities will look like in 2050 is always a fun game, and this projection of Paris is, wellpretty impressive. Belgian architect Vincent Callebaut is behind the concept, which imagines antismog towers with de-polluting properties, photosynthesis towers covered in algae, and vertical farming oriented farmscrapers. Mmm, green.

Next up is Beijing, which gets the 2050 treatment courtesy of MAD Architects. Though the city is frequently in the news for its smog problems, the architects have reimagined the Chinese capital as a decidedly greener place. Were particularly obsessed with these gleaming, elevated gardens. Can we get some of those near us?

Its great to see how many of these futuristic city concepts are focused on bringing more greenery into the urban setting, and Londons Garden Bridge is no exception. A Thames-spanning walkwayfilled with pretty foliage, the proposed project has received planning permissions and is slated to open up as early as 2018. Fingers crossed for new, leafier commutes.

Ever wanted to live in a tree house? What about a house thats also a tree? From stage left, OAS1S: one of the coolest city concepts out there. The plan envisions abodes that are inspired by and effectively function as trees. Theyre oxygen-producing, sustainable, off-gridand pretty, too.

Created by illustrator Paul Chadeisson, this stunning vision of a futuristic Paris is awesome and spooky all at once. A cheery bistro is one of the only indications of the Paris we know; otherwise, industrial, high-tech design seems to have taken over. As this image was created for Dontnod Entertainments Remember Me video game, it probably wont be a reality soon. (Thats okay. We really like all those bistros as-is.)

Not to be confused with Seasteading Institutes Floating City, this one is the work of Chinese firm AT Design Office. And theyve really thought it out. From submarine transit to underwater entertainment centers, this is one city wed move to in a heartbeat. Too bad its not real (yet).

All right, youve caught us; this isnt an artist rendering but a grade-A photo. The Vertical Forest, proposed and created by Milanese architectural studio Stefano Boeri Architetti, is an example of a futuristic, super-green project that has actually made it into the real world. Let this be an inspiration, then. With any luck, the rest of these super-cool city concepts will soon become reality.

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9 Breathtaking City Concepts That Could Be Your Future ... - Zipcar

Migrant crisis – Wikipedia

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Migrant crisis is the intense difficulty, trouble, or danger situation in the receiving state (destination country) due to the movements of large groups of immigrants (displaced people, refugee or asylum seeker) escaping from the conditions (natural or artificially created) which negatively affected their situation (security, economic, political or societal) at the country of origin (departure). The "crisis" situation is not the refugee numbers (number of migrants seeking protection) but the system's failure to respond in an orderly way to the government's legal obligations.[1] Some notable crises are; European migrant crisis, English Channel migrant crisis and World War II evacuation and expulsion.

A refugee crisis refers to a movement of "large" groups of displaced people, and may or may not involve a migrant crisis. The US government's legal obligations inadvertently created the 2014 American immigration crisis. The crisis developed because of unaccompanied children[2] who do not have a legal guardian to provide physical custody (USA ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child), and care quickly overwhelmed the "local border patrols" creating a migrant crisis.[3] Push-Pull view: The "refugee crisis" is a humanitarian one for those adopting the "Push" factors as main cause, while they acknowledge that reasons for migration may be mixed, even the refugees as weapons. For those focusing on "Pull" factors, the "migration crisis" has its roots in border enforcement policies (Immigration system) that were perceived as not sufficiently strict and the need for cheap workers for US business (family separation policy), severe (Operation Streamline), or careful (catch & release) by potential migrants.[4] Compared to refugee crisis (refugee is a refugee), migrant crises also have a separate or distinguish between the deserving refugee from the undeserving migrant and play into fear of cultural, religious, and ethnic difference in the midst of increasing intense, excessive, and persistent worry and fear about everyday situations and lacking in predictability, job security, material or psychological welfare for many in Europe (such in closure of Green Borders).[5]

"Migrant crisis management" involves dealing with issues ("immigration system", "resource management", etc.) before, during, and after they have occurred. According to Global Crisis Centre, migrant crisis management is shaped using the definitions and responsibilities outlined in the UN's Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and subsequent Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees and international solidarity and burden-sharing with collaboration, communication and information dissemination, which are needed for solving migratory issues of the world.[6]

Immigrant receiving states need effective management strategies at achieving a set of tasks for responding to the threat [reasons of crisis] to re-establish a perceived normalcy.[7]

"Transboundary crisis management" (migration is transboundary) involves co-decision, shared procedures and collective instruments in aligned with the steps below:[8]

Management of the crisis shows succession of four scenarios.[9]

Institution that works in this area is the Migration Policy Institute. Global Crisis Centre of PricewaterhouseCoopers works on migrant crisis management.

Broken immigration system (Crisis) is what immigration experts and lawyers refer to as failure in management of "push and pull factors." Push forces for the displaced people are summarized as running from horrors and poverty in the departure country toward a broken immigration system in the receiving states. Pull forces are receiving states having a functioning economy, the safer-faster journey with the help of communication technology (organize and warn) and established smuggler networks which has safer-faster ways to move people. For a full description Human migration#Lee. The condition of refugee or asylum seekers in receiving countries, from the perspective of governments, employers, and citizens, is a topic of continual debate (debate on migrant crises), and on the other end, the violation of migrant human rights is an ongoing crisis.[10]

According to Salil Shetty, Secretary General of Amnesty International,

It is within world leaders power to prevent these crises from spiralling further out of control. Governments must halt their assault on our rights and strengthen the defences the world has put in place to protect them. Human rights are a necessity, not an accessory; and the stakes for humankind have never been higher.

Broken resource management toward the immigrants is part of the inability to develop efficient responses to people in need, causing crisis. The asylum offices in USA, United Kingdom and Australia manages the immigration services.

During 2014 American immigration crisis, immigration courts as well as the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) asylum system are completely under-resourced and confronting an unmanageable caseload.[1] In June, 2019 (five years into crisis), more than 350 "unaccompanied children" have been removed from a holding facility in Texas to bring it into compliance as designed to hold around 120.[11]

Resource management towards the immigrants in USA includes "private sector" involvement as listed in the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986. Law mandates that all companies must help the federal government. Specific immigration areas where human resource managers must ensure compliance by meeting the legal requirements of this immigration reform regulation by incorporating the Immigration and Naturalization Services (INS) Form I-9 into their hiring processes.

Another case for resource management for migrant crisis is the Trump wall, which is a colloquial name for President Trump's solution to immigration. President Trump signed Executive Order 13767, which formally directed the US government to begin attempting wall construction. Executive Order 13767 followed with the 2018 federal government shutdown because of presidential veto on any spending bill that did not include "resource" on wall funding. In February 2019, Trump signed a Declaration of National Emergency, saying situation is a "crisis," officially declaring a "Migrant Crisis" in the MexicoUnited States border.

The financial burden of crises: Germany allocated roughly 10 billion Euros for the cost of refugee care and acceptance in 2015.[12] On the other hand, Greece was exempt to pay from EU-wide refugee sharing initiatives between 2013 and 2015. The migrant crisis is thought to have influenced policies in countries seeking accession to the EU, such as Serbia.[13]

Resource management toward the immigrants in UK managed under National Asylum Support Service (NASS) which is tasked with the responsibility for regulating entry to, and settlement in the interests of sustainable growth and social inclusion.[14] NASS is a section of the UK Visas and Immigration (UKVI) division of the Home Office which support "otherwise be destitute." Provision of accommodation is part of the process.

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Migrant crisis - Wikipedia

NYC migrant crisis will cost city $600M every year, watchdog says

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New York City's migrant crisis will cost "at least" $596 million in public funds each year, according to a Monday report from the city's Independent Budget Office.

City Hall will rack up the costs thanks to offering shelter, healthcare, education and legal aid to thousands of migrants who have been bussed to the city by Republican state governments in Florida and Texas, according to the New York Post.

The arrival of an additional 10,000 asylum seekers assuming the current mix of households remains consistent would increase costs by around $246 million," IBO Acting Director George Sweeting wrote in the report.

"The total cost of providing the identified city services cannot be estimated with certainty as the number of people arriving continues to evolve," he added.

NYC MAYOR ADAMS OPENS 'HUMANITARIAN EMERGENCY' CENTERS FOR BUSLOADS OF MIGRANTS FROM TEXAS, BORDER STATES

Eric Adams, mayor of New York, during a New York State Financial Control Board meeting in New York, US, on Tuesday, Sept. 6, 2022. (Photographer: Stephanie Keith/Bloomberg via Getty Images)

New York Gov. Kathy Hochul and NYC Mayor Eric Adams.

Republican governors Ron DeSantis of Florida and Greg Abbott of Texas have dispatched dozens of busses full of asylum seekers to Democrat-run cities across the country. The program has primarily targeted Washington, D.C., New York City and Chicago.

The governors defend the policy by arguing it is the only way to confront those in power with the realities of the border crisis, which has overwhelmed many Texas cities.

MIGRANT BUS ARRIVES NEAR VP KAMALA HARRIS' DC RESIDENCE, MORE REACH NYC

"In addition to Washington, D.C., New York City is the ideal destination for these migrants, who can receive the abundance of city services and housing that Mayor Eric Adams has boasted about within the sanctuary city," Abbott said in August.

Migrants leave for a shelter from the Port Authority bus terminal in New York, the United States, on Sept. 27, 2022. (Photo by Michael Nagle/Xinhua via Getty Images)

City officials greet migrants arriving on buses from Texas on August 29, 2022 at the Port Authority bus station in midtown New York City, New York. (Photo by Andrew Lichtenstein/Corbis via Getty Images)

NYC Mayor Eric Adams declared a state of emergency over the migrant crisis in October as the city struggled to house some 17,000 asylum seekers.

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"This is a humanitarian crisis that started with violence and instability in South America and is being accelerated by American political dynamics," Adams said at the time. "Thousands of asylum seekers have been bussed into New York City and simply dropped off, without notice, coordination, or care and more are arriving every day."

New York has resorted to drastic measures to house the migrants, going so far as to re-purpose some hotels.

Anders Hagstrom is a reporter with Fox News Digital covering national politics and major breaking news events. Send tips to Anders.Hagstrom@Fox.com, or on Twitter: @Hagstrom_Anders.

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NYC migrant crisis will cost city $600M every year, watchdog says

Webb Image Release- Webb Space Telescope GSFC/NASA

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This image is dominated by NGC 7469, a luminous, face-on spiral galaxy approximately 90 000 light-years in diameter that lies roughly 220 million light-years from Earth in the constellation Pegasus. Its companion galaxy IC 5283 is partly visible in the lower left portion of this image. More

This spiral galaxy has recently been studied as part of the Great Observatories All-sky LIRGs Survey (GOALS) Early Release Science program with the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope, which aims to study the physics of star formation, black hole growth, and feedback in four nearby, merging luminous infrared galaxies. Other galaxies studied as part of the survey include previous ESA/Webb Pictures of the Month II ZW 096 and IC 1623.

NGC 7469 is home to an active galactic nucleus (AGN), which is an extremely bright central region that is dominated by the light emitted by dust and gas as it falls into the galaxys central black hole. This galaxy provides astronomers with the unique opportunity to study the relationship between AGNs and starburst activity because this particular object hosts an AGN that is surrounded by a starburst ring at a distance of a mere 1500 light-years. While NGC 7469 is one of the best studied AGNs in the sky, the compact nature of this system and the presence of a great deal of dust have made it difficult for scientists to achieve both the resolution and sensitivity needed to study this relationship in the infrared. Now, with Webb, astronomers can explore the galaxys starburst ring, the central AGN, and the gas and dust in between.

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Credits: ESA/Webb, NASA & CSA, L. Armus, A. S. Evans

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Webb Image Release- Webb Space Telescope GSFC/NASA

What Is the James Webb Space Telescope? – NASA

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An animation illustrating what the James Webb Space Telescope Looks like. Credit: NASAs Goddard Space Flight Center (modified)

The James Webb Space Telescope is the largest, most powerful space telescope ever built. It will allow scientists to look at what our universe was like about 200 million years after the Big Bang. The telescope will be able to capture images of some of the first galaxies ever formed. It will also be able to observe objects in our solar system from Mars outward, look inside dust clouds to see where new stars and planets are forming and examine the atmospheres of planets orbiting other stars.

Here are some fun facts about the James Webb Space Telescope:

The Webb telescope is as tall as a 3-story building and as long as a tennis court! It is so big that it has to fold origami-style to fit inside the rocket to launch. The telescope will unfold, sunshield first, once in space.

The James Webb Space Telescope is about the same size as a tennis court and about as tall as a 3-story building! Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

Infrared cameras can see through dust and smoke. Credit: NASA/IPAC/Pasadena Fire Dept.

The James Webb Space Telescope sees the universe in light that is invisible to human eyes. This light is called infrared radiation, and we can feel it as heat. Firefighters use infrared cameras to see and rescue people through the smoke in a fire. The James Webb Space Telescope will use its infrared cameras to see through dust in our universe. Stars and planets form inside those dust clouds, so peeking inside could lead to exciting new discoveries! It will also be able to see objects (like the first galaxies) that are so far away that the expansion of the universe has made their light shift from visible to infrared!

This animation shows how the sunshield will unfold when the Webb telescope reaches its home in orbit. Credit: NASA

The Webb telescopes cameras are sensitive to heat from the Sun. Just like you might wear a hat or a visor to block the Sun from your eyes, Webb has a sunshield to protect its instruments and mirrors. The telescopes sunshield is about the size of a tennis court. The temperature difference between the sun-facing and shaded sides of the telescope is more than 600 degrees Fahrenheit!

Engineers inspecting the Webb telescopes mirrors at NASAs Goddard Space Flight Center. Credit: NASA/Chris Gunn

Space telescopes see by using mirrors to collect and focus light from distant stars. (Check out our telescopes page to learn more about how space telescopes work.) The bigger the mirror, the more details the telescope can see. Its very difficult to launch a giant, heavy mirror into space. So, engineers gave the Webb telescope 18 smaller mirrors that fit together like a puzzle. The mirrors fold up inside the rocket, then unfold to form one large mirror in orbit.

Why are the mirrors gold? A thin layer of gold helps the mirrors reflect infrared light!

Could life survive on this faraway planet? Astronomers study the light from stars and planets to see if they might have the ingredients for life. Animation credit: NASA/ESA/Dani Player (STScI), Music credit: Steve Combs

Our solar system isnt the only home for planets! Scientists have discovered thousands of planets orbiting stars other than our Sun. These are called exoplanets. The James Webb Space Telescope will help to study the atmospheres of exoplanets. Could the atmospheres of some exoplanets hold the building blocks for life? We will find out soon!

The James Webb Space Telescope launched on December 25, 2021. Want to stay up to date and learn more about NASAs biggest and most powerful telescope? Check out this cool timeline to learn what the telescope is doing right now! Also, Find more facts, photos, videos and more at the James Webb Space Telescope Website!

NASA Exoplanets: What is the habitable zone?James Webb Space Telescope PosterLesson Plans, Activities, Resources & Programs For Informal EducationTeachable Moment: Learn About the Universe With the James Webb Space Telescope

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What Is the James Webb Space Telescope? - NASA

The Launch – Webb/NASA

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The James Webb Space Telescope was launched on an Ariane 5 rocket, one of the world's most reliable launch vehicles.

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The James Webb Space Telescope was launched on an Ariane 5 rocket. The launch vehicle and launch site are part of the European Space Agency's contribution to the mission. The Ariane 5 is one of the world's most reliable launch vehicles and was chosen for a combination of reliability (it was the only launch vehicle that met NASA's requirements for launching a mission like Webb) and for the value it brings via our international partnership. Read more about why the Ariane 5 was chosen.

Webb was launched from Arianespace's ELA-3 launch complex at Europe's Spaceport located near Kourou, French Guiana. It is beneficial for launch sites to be located near the equator - the spin of the Earth can help give an additional push. The surface of the Earth at the equator is moving at 1670 km/hr.

The Launch Segment has 3 primary components:

1. Launch Vehicle: an Ariane 5 with the cryogenic upper stage. Provided in the single launch configuration, with a long payload fairing providing a maximum 4.57 meter static diameter and useable length of 16.19 meters.

2. Payload Adapter, comprising the Cone 3936 plus ACU 2624 lower cylinder and clamp-band, which provides the separating mechanical and electrical interface between the Webb Observatory and the Launch Vehicle.

3. Launch campaign preparation and launch campaign. The launch campaign preparation and launch campaign is the mutual responsibility of NASA, ESA, Northrop Grumman and ArianeSpace.

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The Launch - Webb/NASA

Who Is James Webb – Webb/NASA

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James E. Webb ran the fledgling space agency from February 1961 to October 1968. He believed that NASA had to strike a balance between human space flight and science.

The man whose name NASA has chosen to bestow upon the successor to the Hubble Space Telescope is most commonly linked to the Apollo moon program, not to science.

Yet, many believe that James E. Webb, who ran the fledgling space agency from February 1961 to October 1968, did more for science than perhaps any other government official and that it is only fitting that the Next Generation Space Telescope would be named after him.

(High-res pic available, credit: NASA)

Webb's record of support for space science would support those views. Although President John Kennedy had committed the nation to landing a man on the moon before the end of the decade, Webb believed that the space program was more than a political race. He believed that NASA had to strike a balance between human space flight and science because such a combination would serve as a catalyst for strengthening the nation's universities and aerospace industry.

As part of an oral history project sponsored by the LBJ Library in Austin, Texas, Webb recalled his conversations with Kennedy and Vice President Lyndon Johnson. He was quoted as saying in one transcript, "And so far as I'm concerned, I'm not going to run a program that's just a one-shot program. If you want me to be the administrator, it's going to be a balanced program that does the job for the country..."

Webb's vision of a balanced program resulted in a decade of space science research that remains unparalleled today. During his tenure, NASA invested in the development of robotic spacecraft, which explored the lunar environment so that astronauts could do so later, and it sent scientific probes to Mars and Venus, giving Americans their first-ever view of the strange landscape of outer space. As early as 1965, Webb also had written that a major space telescope, then known as the Large Space Telescope, should become a major NASA effort.

By the time Webb retired just a few months before the first moon landing in July 1969, NASA had launched more than 75 space science missions to study the stars and galaxies, our own Sun and the as-yet unknown environment of space above the Earth's atmosphere. Missions such as the Orbiting Solar Observatory and the Explorer series of astronomical satellites built the foundation for the most successful period of astronomical discovery in history, which continues today.

Webb supported science behind the scenes, as well. Shortly after assuming the job vacated by Keith Glennan, Webb chose to continue the same basic organization that his predecessor had adopted for the selection of science programs. However, he enhanced the role of scientists in key ways. He gave them greater control in the selection process of science missions and he created the NASA University Program, which established grants for space research, funded the construction of new laboratories at universities and provided fellowships for graduate students. The program also encouraged university presidents and vice presidents to actively participate in NASA's Space Science Program and to publicly support all of NASA's programs.

This record of accomplishment is perhaps more notable given Webb's initial reluctance to accept the job. An experienced manager, attorney and businessman, the North Carolina native had served as Director of the Bureau of the Budget and as Undersecretary of State in the Truman administration. Webb also served as president and vice president of several private firms and served on the board of directors of the McDonnell Aircraft Company. He was not, however, a scientist or engineer-something he noted when President Kennedy asked him to consider the job as NASA Administrator.

He told an interviewer that, "I felt that I had made the pattern of my life, and I was not really the best person for this anyway. It seemed to me someone who knew more about rocketry, about space, would be a better person." Kennedy did not see it that way. With his keen political savvy and exceptional managerial skills, Webb was perfect for the job, the President believed. He made it clear to Webb that the NASA Administrator's job was a policy job. He needed someone who could handle the large issues of national and international policies.

The scientific community was equally anxious about Webb. The scientists at NASA Headquarters had wanted someone with a keen interest in space science and a desire to bolster the involvement of universities in the space program. Within a few months, Webb proved where he stood.

At the height of the Apollo program, NASA had 35,000 employees and more than 400,000 contractors in thousands of companies and universities across the U.S. Under Webb's direction, the agency undertook one of the most impressive projects in history-landing a man on the moon before the end of the decade.

As NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe said when he announced the new name for the next generation space telescope, "It is fitting that Hubble's successor be named in honor of James Webb. Thanks to his efforts, we got our first glimpses at the dramatic landscape of outer space. He took our nation on its first voyages of exploration, turning our imagination into reality. Indeed, he laid the foundations at NASA for one of the most successful periods of astronomical discovery. As a result, we're rewriting the textbooks today with the help of the Hubble Space Telescope , the Chandra X-ray Observatory , and the James Webb Telescope."

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James Webb Space Telescope reveals alien planet’s atmosphere like never …

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A boiling Saturn-like planet 700 light-years away from the sun has become the best-explored planet outside our solar system. The James Webb Space Telescope's measurements of the planet's atmosphere have revealed unprecedented details of its chemistry, and even allowed astronomers to test methods for detecting alien life.

The exoplanet WASP-39b, which orbits a star in the constellation Virgo, made headlines in late August when the James Webb Space Telescope (Webb or JWST) found carbon dioxide in its atmosphere. It was the first ever such detection and experts hailed the finding as a major breakthrough. Now, less than three months later, an avalanche of studies based on the grand telescope's observations have revealed the most minute details of WASP-39b's atmosphere, which even enabled astronomers to make conclusions about the exoplanet's formation history.

"These early observations are a harbinger of more amazing science to come with JWST," Laura Kreidberg, director of the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy (MPIA) in Germany who was involved in the observations, said in a statement. "We put the telescope through its paces to test the performance, and it was nearly flawless even better than we hoped."

Related: James Webb Space Telescope snags its 1st direct photo of an alien world

Astronomers used three out of Webb's four instruments to observe the distant planet: the main NIRCam camera and the two spectroscopes NIRISS and NIRSpec, which split light from the observed objects into light spectra, the barcode-like fingerprints that reveal the chemical compositions of the observed planets and stars.

The observations revealed that WASP-39b is shrouded in thick clouds containing sulfur and silicates. These chemicals interact with the light of the parent star, producing sulfur dioxide in a reaction similar to the one that produces ozone in Earth's atmosphere.

WASP-39b is a gas giant about one-third the size of the solar system's largest planet, Jupiter, and orbits only 4.3 million miles (7 million kilometers) away from its parent star, or eight times closer than the distance of the solar system's innermost planet Mercury from the sun.

The sheer intensity of starlight that batters WASP-39b makes the planet an ideal laboratory for studying such photochemical reactions, scientists said in the statement.

The level of detail provided by JWST allowed astronomers to peek into WASP-39b's past and learn how this hot and scorching world came into being. From the ratios of carbon to oxygen, of potassium to oxygen, and of sulfur to hydrogen in the planet's atmosphere, the researchers inferred that the gas giant planet must have formed from collisions of several smaller planetesimals. In addition, the much higher abundance of oxygen compared to carbon in the thick clouds revealed that WASP-39b formed much farther away from its star than it orbits today.

"Data like these are a game changer," Natalia Batalha, a professor of astronomy and astrophysics at the University of California at Santa Cruz who coordinated the observing program, said in the statement.

The observations even allowed astronomers to test methods that one day could help detect life on other exoplanets. That detection would rely on a similar atmospheric analysis as conducted on WASP-39b, then compare the results with models of alien planets. If the planet displays more oxygen than those models predict, for example, it could be a sign of life.

WASP-39b, however, due to its proximity to its parent star, is an improbable candidate to host extraterrestrial life as temperature on the planet soars to an unlivable 1,650 degrees Fahrenheit (900 degrees Celsius).

Five new studies (1,2,3,4,5) based on JWST data are under review or in press with the journal Nature.

Follow Tereza Pultarova on Twitter @TerezaPultarova. Follow us on Twitter @Spacedotcom and on Facebook.

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Rockall – Wikipedia

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Uninhabited islet in the North Atlantic Ocean

Rockall () is an uninhabitable granite islet situated in the North Atlantic Ocean. The United Kingdom claims that Rockall lies within its exclusive economic zone (EEZ)[1] and is part of its territory, but this claim is not recognised by Ireland.[2][3] It and the nearby skerries of Hasselwood Rock and Helen's Reef are the only emergent parts of the Rockall Plateau. The rock was formed by magmatism as part of the North Atlantic Igneous Province during the Paleogene.

Rockall's approximate distances from the closest islands in each direction are as follows: It is 301.3 kilometres (187.2 statute miles; 162.7 nautical miles) west of Soay, Scotland;[4] 423.2km (263.0mi; 228.5nmi) northwest of Tory Island, Ireland;[5] and 700 kilometres (430 statute miles; 380 nautical miles) south of Iceland.[6]The nearest permanently inhabited place is North Uist, an island in the Outer Hebrides of Scotland, 370 kilometres (230mi; 200nmi) to the east.[3]

The United Kingdom claimed Rockall in 1955 and incorporated it as a part of Scotland in 1972. The UK does not make a claim to extended EEZ based on Rockall, as it has ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which says that "rocks which cannot sustain human habitation or economic life of their own shall have no exclusive economic zone or continental shelf".[1] However, such features are entitled to a territorial sea extending 12 nautical miles (22 kilometres). Ireland's position is that Rockall does not even generate a 12-nautical-mile territorial sea for the United Kingdom owing to the UK's uncertain title to Rockall.[7][8] Ireland does not recognize the UK's claim, although it has never sought to claim sovereignty of Rockall for itself.[9][10] The consistent position of successive Irish governments has been that Rockall and similar rocks and skerries have no significance for establishing legal claims to mineral rights in the adjacent seabed or to fishing rights in the surrounding seas.[9]

The origin and meaning of the islet's name Rockall is uncertain. The Scottish Gaelic name for the islet, Rcal, may derive from an Old Norse name that may contain the element fjall, meaning 'mountain'.[11] It has also been suggested that the name is from the Norse *rok, meaning 'foaming sea', and kollr, meaning 'bald head'a word which appears in other placenames in Scandinavian-speaking areas.[12] Another idea is that it derives from the Gaelic Sgeir Rocail, meaning 'skerry of roaring' or 'sea rock of roaring'[13] (although rocail can also be translated as 'tearing' or 'ripping').[14][15]

The Dutch mapmakers Petrus Plancius and C. Claesz[nl], show an island called Rookol northwest of Ireland on their Map of New France and the Northern Atlantic Ocean (Amsterdam, c.1594). The first literary reference to the island, which is called Rokol, is found in Martin Martin's A Description of the Western Isles of Scotland, published in 1703. This book gives an account of a voyage to the archipelago of St Kilda, and Martin states: "...and from it lies Rokol, a small rock sixty leagues [300km] to the westward of St Kilda; the inhabitants of this place call it Rokabarra."[16]

The name Rocabarraigh is also used in Scottish Gaelic folklore for a mythical rock which is supposed to appear three times, its last appearance being at the end of the world: "Nuair a thig Rocabarra ris, is dual gun tid an Saoghal a sgrios". ('When Rocabarra returns, the world will likely come to be destroyed').[17]

Rockall's name has also been used in Irish mythology; one story describes how legendary giant Fionn mac Cumhaill (Finn McCool) scooped up a chunk of Ireland to fling at a Scottish rival. It instead missed and landed in the Irish Sea the pebble left behind formed Rockall, while the clump became the Isle of Man and the void left behind filled with water and eventually became Lough Neagh.[18][19]

There can be no place more desolate, despairing and awful.

The 17.15-metre-high (56.3ft) rock has been noted in written records since the late 16th century.[21][22] In the 20th century, its location became relevant due to potential oil and fishing rights that might accrue to a nation recognized as having a legitimate claim to it.[citation needed]

In 1955 the British landed on Rockall and claimed it for the United Kingdom.[23] The United Kingdom formally annexed the islet in 1972.[24] According to Ian Mitchell, Rockall was terra nullius (owned by no one) until the 1955 British claim was made.[citation needed]

Rockall gives its name to one of the sea areas named in the shipping forecast provided by the British Meteorological Office.

Rockall has been a point of interest for adventurers and amateur radio operators, who have variously landed on or briefly occupied the islet. Fewer than 20 individuals have ever been confirmed to have landed on Rockall, and the longest known continuous occupation is 45 days (achieved in 2014 by a solo person).[25] In a House of Commons debate in 1971, William Ross, Labour MP for Kilmarnock, said: "More people have landed on the moon than have landed on Rockall" (however only twelve people have landed on the moon, so while possibly true at the time, it is no longer correct.)[20]

The earliest recorded date of landing on the island is often given as 8 July 1810, when a Royal Navy officer named Basil Hall led a small landing party from the frigate HMSEndymion to the summit. However, research by James Fisher (see below), in the log of Endymion and elsewhere, indicates that the actual date for this first landing was on Sunday 8 September 1811.[26]

The landing party left Endymion for the rock by boat. Whilst there, Endymion, which was taking depth measurements around Rockall, lost visual contact with the rock as a haze descended. The ship drifted away, leaving the landing party stranded. The expedition made a brief attempt to return to the ship, but could not find the frigate in the haze, and soon gave up and returned to Rockall. After the haze became a fog, the lookout sent to the top of Rockall spotted the ship again, but it turned away from Rockall before the expedition in their boats reached it. Finally, just before sunset, the frigate was again spotted from the top of Rockall, and the expedition was able to get back on board. The crew of Endymion reported that they had been searching for five or six hours, firing their cannon every ten minutes. Hall related this experience and other adventures in a book entitled Fragment of Voyages and Travels Including Anecdotes of a Naval Life.

The next landing was by a Mr Johns of HMS Porcupine whilst the ship was on a mission, (between June and August 1862), to make a survey of the sea bed prior to the laying of a transatlantic telegraph cable. Johns managed to gain foothold on the island, but failed to reach the summit.

On 18 September 1955, Rockall was annexed by the British Crown when Lieutenant-Commander Desmond Scott RN, Sergeant Brian Peel RM, Corporal AA Fraser RM, and James Fisher (a civilian naturalist and former Royal Marine), were winched onto the island by a Royal Navy helicopter from HMSVidal (coincidentally named after the man who first charted the island). The annexation of Rockall was announced by the Admiralty on 21 September 1955.[27]

The expedition team cemented in a brass plaque on Hall's Ledge and hoisted the Union Flag to stake the UK's claim. The inscription on the plaque read:

BY AUTHORITY OF HER MAJESTY QUEEN ELIZABETH THE SECOND, BY THE GRACE OF GOD OF THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND AND OF HER OTHER REALMS AND TERRITORIES, QUEEN, HEAD OF THE COMMONWEALTH, DEFENDER OF THE FAITH, ETC. ETC. ETC. AND IN ACCORDANCE WITH HER MAJESTY'S INSTRUCTIONS DATED 14. 9. 55. A LANDING WAS EFFECTED ON THIS DAY UPON THE ISLAND OF ROCKALL FROM H.M.S. VIDAL. THE UNION FLAG WAS HOISTED AND POSSESSION OF THE ISLAND WAS TAKEN IN THE NAME OF HER MAJESTY. [Signed] R H Connell, CAPTAIN, H.M.S. VIDAL, 18 SEPTEMBER 1955

It was the final territorial expansion of the British empire.[28]

The initial incentive for the annexation was the test-firing of the UK's first guided nuclear weapon, the American-made Corporal missile. The missile was to be launched from South Uist and sent over the North Atlantic. The Ministry of Defence was concerned that the unclaimed island would provide an opportunity for the Soviet Union to spy on the test. Consequently, in April 1955 an order was issued to the Admiralty to seize the island and declare UK sovereignty, lest it become an outpost for foreign observers.

On 7 November 1955, J. Abrach Mackay, a member of the Clan Mackay, made a protest about the annexation; the 84-year-old local councillor declared: "My old father, God rest his soul, claimed that island for the Clan of Mackay in 1846 and I now demand that the Admiralty hand it back. It's no' theirs'." The British Government ignored the protests, which were soon forgotten.[20][29]

In 1971,[30] Captain T R Kirkpatrick RE led the landing party on a government expedition named "Operation Top Hat" that was mounted from RFA Engadine to establish that the rock was part of the United Kingdom and to prepare the islet for the installation of a light beacon. The landing party included Royal Engineers, Royal Marines and civilian members from the Institute of Geological Sciences in London. The party was landed by winch line from the Wessex 5 helicopters of the Royal Naval Air Services Commando Headquarters Squadron, commanded by Lt Cmdr Neil Foster RN. As well as collecting samples of the aegerine granite, rockallite, for later analysis in London, the top of the rock was blown off using a newly developed blasting technique, Precision Pre-Splitting. This created a level area that was drilled to take the anchorages for the light beacon that was installed the following year. Two phosphor bronze plates were chased into the wall above Hall's Ledge, each secured by four 80-tonne rock-anchor bolts; there was no evidence of the brass plate installed in 1955.

Establishing that the rock is part of the United Kingdom and its development as a light beacon facilitated the incorporation of the island into the District of Harris in the County of Inverness in the Island of Rockall Act 1972 and reinforced the UK Government's position with regard to seabed rights in the area.

In 1978,[31] eight members of the Dangerous Sports Club, including David Kirke, one of its founders, held a cocktail party on the island,[32] allegedly leaving with the plaque.[33]

Former SAS member and survival expert Tom McClean lived on the island from 26 May 1985 to 4 July 1985 to affirm the UK's claim to the islet.[34]

Global State of Waveland

Flag

Established

Disestablished

In 1997, the environmentalist organisation Greenpeace occupied the islet for a short time,[35] calling it Waveland, to protest against oil exploration. Greenpeace declared the island to be a "new Global State" (as a spoof micronation) and offered citizenship to anyone willing to take their pledge of allegiance. The British Government's response was to state that "Rockall is British territory. It is part of Scotland and anyone is free to go there and can stay as long as they please"[36] and otherwise ignore them. During his one night on Rockall, Greenpeace protester and Guardian journalist John Vidal unscrewed the 1955 plaque and re-fixed it back-to-front.[37] Micronation continued after leaving the island until 1999.

In June 2005 the first amateur radio (ham radio) activation of Rockall took place when the club station MS0IRC/P was set up and operated for a few hours on HF frequencies before they had to close down due to approaching bad weather. The IOTA number EU-189 was issued to Rockall as a result of this activation.

In 2010, it was revealed that the plaque had gone missing. An Englishman, Andy Strangeway, announced his intention to land on the island and affix a replacement plaque in June 2010.[38] The Western Isles Council have approved planning permission for the plaque.[39] The 2010 expedition was cancelled, but Strangeway still intends to replace the plaque.[40][needs update]

In October 2011 a group of amateur radio (ham radio) operators from Belgium travelled by ship to Rockall. Several of them climbed up the rocks and set up a radio station for some hours. They stayed overnight on top of the island. Radio contacts to all over the world were made using HF frequencies under the call sign "MM0RAI/P".[citation needed]

In 2013 an occupation of the island by explorer Nick Hancock to raise money for the charity Help for Heroes was planned. The challenge was to land on Rockall and survive solo for 60 days.[41] On 31 May 2013, Hancock, and a TV crew from BBC's The One Show, sailed to the islet aboard Orca III, and he made his first unsuccessful attempt to land on the islet.[42][43] The weather conditions at the time "were not favourable" according to a Maritime and Coastguard Agency official. Subsequently, Hancock postponed his challenge until 2014.[44] On 5 June 2014 Hancock landed on Rockall to begin his 60-day survival.[45] Despite being forced to cut his 60-day goal short after losing supplies in a storm, Hancock did remain on the island for 45 days, beating McClean's occupancy record by five days.[46][47]

The "Round Rockall" sailing race, sponsored by Galway Bay Sailing Club, runs from Galway, Ireland, around Rockall and back. It was held in 2012 to coincide with the finish of the 201112 Volvo Ocean Race around the world.[48]

The 20152016 Clipper Round the World Yacht Race race 12 from New York to Derry was extended around Rockall despite previous promises to crew from Sir Robin Knox-Johnston that this would not happen again after the race to Danang.[49]

In 2017, the Safehaven Marine team led by Frank Kowalski set a world record for the Long Way Round Circumnavigation of Ireland via Rockall island. The Baracuda-style naval patrol, search and rescue vessel, Thunder Child, completed the route in 34 hours, 1 minute, and 47 seconds.[50] Set in an anti-clockwise direction, the new record the first of its kind is now subject to ratification by Irish Sailing and the Union Internationale Motonautique, the world governing board for all powerboat activity.

During Queen Elizabeth II's platinum jubilee celebrations in June 2022, Dr. Chris Grieco and Campbell Cameron had intended to live on the rock for one week to raise 1 million for the Children's Hospice South West and The Royal Navy charity.[51][52] The trip was also being supported by Nick Hancock, who is the world record holder for occupation of the Rock. The attempt at Rockall was cancelled due to the unavailability of a vessel. A new team including Campbell Cameron VR RNR FRGS and Chris Thrall, a former Royal Marine Commando,[53] is planned to go ahead in June 2023, with the goal of beating the world record currently held by Nick Hancock FRGS.

Rockall is one of the few pinnacles of the surrounding Helen's Reef; it is located 301.3 kilometres (162.7 nautical miles) west of the uninhabited islet of Soay, St Kilda, Scotland,[4] and 423.2 kilometres (263.0 statute miles; 228.5 nautical miles) northwest of Tory Island, County Donegal, Ireland.[5] Its location was precisely determined by Nick Hancock during his 2014 expedition.[54] The surrounding elevated seabed is called the Rockall Bank, lying directly south from an area known as the Rockall Plateau. It is separated from the Outer Hebrides by the Rockall Trough, itself located within the Rockall Basin (also known as the "Hatton Rockall Basin").[citation needed]

In 1956 the British scientist James Fisher referred to the island as "the most isolated small rock in the oceans of the world".[55] The neighbouring Hasselwood Rock and several other pinnacles of the surrounding Helen's Reef are smaller, at half the size of Rockall or less, and equally remote, but those formations are legally not islands or points on land, as they are often submerged completely, only revealed momentarily above certain types of ocean surface waves.

Rockall is about 25 metres (80ft) wide and 31m (102ft) long at its base[56] and rises sheer to a height of 17.15m (56ft 3in).[21][57][22] It is often washed over by large storm waves, particularly in winter. There is a small ledge of 3.5 by 1.3m (11ft 6in by 4ft 3in), known as Hall's Ledge, four metres (13ft) from the summit on the rock's western face.[58] It is the only named geographical location on the rock.

The nearest point on land from Rockall is 301.3 kilometres (162.7nmi), east at the uninhabited Scottish island of Soay in the St Kilda archipelago. The nearest inhabited area lies 303.2 kilometres (163.7nmi) east at Hirta[59][original research?], the largest island in the St. Kilda group, which is populated intermittently at a single military base.[60][61] The nearest permanently inhabited settlement is 366.8km (198.1nmi) west of the headland of Aird an Rnair,[62] near the crofting township of Hogha Gearraidh on the island of North Uist at NF705711 (573633N 7317W / 57.60917N 7.51861W / 57.60917; -7.51861 (Hogha Gearraidh / Hougharry)). North Uist is part of Na h-Eileanan Siar council area of Scotland.

The exact position of Rockall and the size and shape of the Rockall Bank was first charted in 1831 by Captain A. T. E. Vidal, a Royal Navy surveyor. The first scientific expedition to Rockall was led by Miller Christy in 1896 when the Royal Irish Academy sponsored a study of the flora and fauna.[63] They chartered the Granuaile.[55][64]

A detailed underwater mapping of the area around Rockall undertaken in 20112012 by Marine Scotland showed that Rockall itself is a minor pinnacle, whilst Helen's Reef extends in a sweeping arc of fissures and ridges to the north-west of the islet. Between the islet and Helen's Reef is a deeper trench much used by squid fishermen.[65]

Rockall is located in the pathway of the warming and moderating Gulf Stream. Although the rock does not sustain any weather station, the isolated nature of the setting dictates an extremely maritime climate without heat or cold extremes.

Rockall is made of a type of peralkaline granite that is relatively rich in sodium and potassium. Within this granite are darker bands richer in iron because they contain two iron-sodium silicate minerals called aegirine and riebeckite. The darker bands are a type of granite that geologists have named "rockallite", although use of this term is now discouraged.[66][67]

In 1975, a mineral new to science was discovered in a rock sample from Rockall. The mineral is called bazirite, named after the chemical elements barium and zirconium. Bazirite has the chemical composition BaZrSi3O9.[68]

Rockall forms part of the deeply eroded Rockall Igneous Centre that was formed as part of the North Atlantic Igneous Province.[69] It was formed approximately 52 8 million years ago based on rubidiumstrontium dating,[70] as part of the breakup of Laurasia. Greenland and Europe separated and the northeast Atlantic Ocean was formed between them,[66] eventually leaving Rockall as an isolated islet.

The RV Celtic Explorer surveyed the Rockall Bank in 2003.[71] The Irish Light Vessel Granuaile (the same name as the steamer on the RIA 1896 botany survey) was chartered by the Geological Survey of Ireland, on behalf of the Department of Communications, Marine and Natural Resources, to conduct a seismic survey of the Rockall Bank and the Hatton Bank in July 2004,[72] as part of the Irish National Seabed Survey.[72]

The island's only permanent macro-organism inhabitants are common periwinkles and other marine molluscs. Small numbers of seabirds, mainly fulmars, northern gannets, black-legged kittiwakes, and common guillemots, use the rock for resting in summer, and gannets and guillemots occasionally breed successfully if the summer is calm with no storm waves washing over the rock. In total there have been just over twenty species of seabird and six other animal species observed (including the aforementioned molluscs) on or near the islet.

Cold-water coral biogenic reefs have been identified on the wider Rockall Bank,[73] which are contributing features for the East Rockall Bank and North-West Rockall Bank SACs.[74][75]

In December 2013 surveys by Marine Scotland discovered four new species of animals in the sea around Rockall. These are believed to live in an area where hydrocarbons are released from the sea bed, known as a cold seep. The discovery has raised the issue of restricting some forms of fishery to protect the sea bed.[76] The species are:

Irish claims to Rockall are based on its proximity to the Irish mainland;[77] however, the country has never formally claimed sovereignty over the rock. Although Rockall is closer to the UK coast than to the Irish coast,[4][5] Ireland does not recognise the UK's territorial claim to Rockall, "which would be the basis for a claim to a 12-mile territorial sea".[9][78]

Ireland regards Rockall as irrelevant when determining the boundaries of the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) as the rock is uninhabitable[2][79][80] and in signing the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in 1997, the UK has agreed that "Rocks which cannot sustain human habitation or economic life of their own shall have no exclusive economic zone or continental shelf".

In 1988, Ireland and the United Kingdom signed an EEZ boundary agreement, ignoring the rock per UNCLOS.[2] With effect from 31 March 2014, the UK and Ireland published EEZ limits which include Rockall within the UK's EEZ.[81][82]

In October 2012, the Irish Independent published a picture of the Irish Navy ship L Risn sailing past Rockall conducting routine maritime security patrols, and claimed that it was exercising Ireland's sovereign rights over the rock.[83]

The UK claims Rockall along with a 12-nautical-mile-radius (22km) territorial sea around the islet inside the country's exclusive economic zone (EEZ).[1] The UK also claims "a circle of UK sovereign airspace over the islet of Rockall".[1]

The UK claimed Rockall on 18 September 1955 when "Two Royal Marines and a civilian naturalist, led by Royal Navy officer Lieutenant Commander Desmond Scott, raised a Union flag on the islet and cemented a plaque into the rock".[84] Prior to this Rockall was legally terra nullius.[85] In 1972, the British Island of Rockall Act formally annexed Rockall to the United Kingdom.[85]

The UK considers the rock administratively part of the Isle of Harris and, under the Scottish Adjacent Waters Boundaries Order 1999 a large sea area around it was declared to be under the jurisdiction of Scots law. A navigational beacon was installed on the island in 1982[86] and the UK declared that no ship would be allowed within a 50-nautical-mile (93km) radius of the rock.[citation needed] However, in 1997, the UK ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), limiting territorial sea claims to a 12-nautical-mile (22km) radius, and therefore allowing free passage in waters beyond this.

In 1988, the United Kingdom and Ireland signed an EEZ boundary agreement for which "the location of Rockall was irrelevant to the determination of the boundary".[2] In 1997, the UK ratified UNCLOS, which states that "Rocks which cannot sustain human habitation or economic life of their own shall have no exclusive economic zone or continental shelf".

As the rock lies within the United Kingdom's EEZ, the UK has sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and exploiting, conserving and managing the natural resources of the area, including jurisdiction over the protection and preservation of the marine environment.[81][87]

In May 2017, declassified documents revealed that the 1955 decision to claim the rock as UK territory was motivated by worries that it could otherwise be used by "hostile agents" to spy on the future South Uist missile testing range.[88]

Early in January 2021, after the UK left the European Union, the Northern Celt, an Irish fishing boat based out of Greencastle, County Donegal, was ordered to leave the 12-nautical-mile zone around Rockall by officers of Marine Scotland.[89]

There have been various disasters on the neighbouring Hasselwood Rock and Helen's Reef (the latter was named in 1830).

Notes

Bibliography

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Shipping forecast and gale warnings – Met Office

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Coast and sea

The general synopsis at midnight

New low expected Rockall 982 by midnight tonight

Issued at:05:05 (UTC) on Fri 30 Dec 2022.

For the period06:00 (UTC) on Fri 30 Dec 2022to06:00 (UTC) on Sat 31 Dec 2022.

Select a sea areaShow all areas Viking North Utsire South Utsire Forties Cromarty Forth Tyne Dogger Fisher German Bight Humber Thames Dover Wight Portland Plymouth Biscay Trafalgar FitzRoy Sole Lundy Fastnet Irish Sea Shannon Rockall Malin Hebrides Bailey Fair Isle Faeroes Southeast Iceland

Issued: 15:50 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Gale force 8 backing southerly and increasing severe gale force 9 later

Issued: 21:56 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Gale now ceased but southerly severe gale force 9 expected later

Issued: 15:50 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Gale force 8 backing southerly and increasing severe gale force 9 later

Issued: 15:50 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Gale force 8 backing southerly and increasing severe gale force 9 later

Issued: 21:56 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Gale now ceased but southerly severe gale force 9 expected soon, veering westerly later

Issued: 21:56 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Gale now ceased but southerly severe gale force 9 expected soon, veering westerly later

Issued: 21:56 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Gale now ceased but southerly severe gale force 9 expected soon

Issued: 15:50 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Gale force 8 backing southerly and increasing severe gale force 9 later

Issued: 15:50 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Gale force 8 backing southerly and increasing severe gale force 9 later

Issued: 15:50 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Gale force 8 backing southerly and increasing severe gale force 9 later

Issued: 21:56 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Gale now ceased but southerly severe gale force 9 expected soon

Issued: 21:56 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Gale now ceased but southerly severe gale force 9 expected soon

Issued: 15:50 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Gale now ceased but southerly severe gale force 9 expected later

Issued: 15:50 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Gale now ceased but southerly severe gale force 9 expected later

Issued: 15:50 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Gale now ceased but southerly severe gale force 9 expected later

Issued: 15:50 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Southerly gale 8 expected soon, increasing severe gale 9 later

Issued: 03:42 (UTC) on Fri 30 Dec 2022

Southwesterly gale force 8 continuing, increasing severe gale force 9 later

Issued: 15:50 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Southwesterly gale force 8 expected later

Forecast issued: 00:15 (UTC) on Fri 30 Dec 2022

Issued: 15:50 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Southwesterly gale force 8 increasing severe gale force 9 soon

Issued: 09:48 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Gale now ceased but southerly gale force 8 expected soon

Issued: 21:56 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Southwesterly gale force 8 continuing

Issued: 21:56 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Southwesterly gale force 8 continuing

Issued: 03:42 (UTC) on Fri 30 Dec 2022

Southerly severe gale force 9 continuing, decreasing gale force 8 imminent, veering southwesterly soon

Issued: 21:56 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Southwesterly gale force 8 continuing

Issued: 21:56 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Southwesterly gale force 8 veering northwesterly and increasing severe gale force 9 soon

Issued: 21:56 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Southerly gale force 8 veering westerly and increasing severe gale force 9 later

Issued: 01:22 (UTC) on Fri 30 Dec 2022

Gale now ceased but northeasterly severe gale force 9 expected soon

Issued: 21:56 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Gale now ceased but northeasterly gale force 8 expected soon

Issued: 03:42 (UTC) on Fri 30 Dec 2022

Gale now ceased but northeasterly severe gale force 9 expected soon

Issued: 03:42 (UTC) on Fri 30 Dec 2022

Gale now ceased but northeasterly gale force 8 expected soon

Issued: 15:50 (UTC) on Thu 29 Dec 2022

Storm force 10 backing northerly and decreasing severe gale force 9 imminent, then decreasing gale force 8 soon

The shipping forecast is issued four times a day at 2300, 0500, 1100, 1700 UTC and covers a period of 24 hours from 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 UTC respectively.

The waters around the British Isles are divided into 31 sea areas shown on the map.

The forecast contains details of gale warnings in force, a general synopsis and sea-area forecasts containing wind direction and force, sea state, weather and visibility.

Gale warnings are issued as required throughout the day (for winds of Gale Force 8 or more).

In the UK, the Maritime & Coastguard Agency (MCA) is responsible for the provision of Maritime Safety Information (MSI) to ships at sea, which includes the broadcast of warnings and forecasts. The Met Office initiates warnings and prepares routine forecasts for dissemination on behalf of the MCA.

Caution: The internet is not part of the Maritime Safety Information system and should never be relied upon as the only means to obtain the latest forecast and warning information. Access to the service may be interrupted or delayed from time to time, updates may also be delayed.

Please refer to GMDSS services, INMARSAT SafetyNET or international NAVTEX for the latest information. When using these web pages, always check that the page on your screen is not from your cache. Use the Refresh or Reload button if in any doubt.

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Shipping forecast and gale warnings - Met Office

Stem-cell therapy – Wikipedia

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Use of stem cells to treat or prevent a disease or condition

Stem-cell therapy is the use of stem cells to treat or prevent a disease or condition.[1] As of 2016[update], the only established therapy using stem cells is hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.[2] This usually takes the form of a bone-marrow transplantation, but the cells can also be derived from umbilical cord blood. Research is underway to develop various sources for stem cells as well as to apply stem-cell treatments for neurodegenerative diseases[3] and conditions such as diabetes and heart disease.

Stem-cell therapy has become controversial following developments such as the ability of scientists to isolate and culture embryonic stem cells, to create stem cells using somatic cell nuclear transfer and their use of techniques to create induced pluripotent stem cells. This controversy is often related to abortion politics and to human cloning. Additionally, efforts to market treatments based on transplant of stored umbilical cord blood have been controversial.

For over 30 years, hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) has been used to treat people with conditions such as leukaemia and lymphoma; this is the only widely practiced form of stem-cell therapy.[4][5][6] During chemotherapy, most growing cells are killed by the cytotoxic agents. These agents, however, cannot discriminate between the leukaemia or neoplastic cells, and the hematopoietic stem cells within the bone marrow. This is the side effect of conventional chemotherapy strategies that the stem-cell transplant attempts to reverse; a donor's healthy bone marrow reintroduces functional stem cells to replace the cells lost in the host's body during treatment. The transplanted cells also generate an immune response that helps to kill off the cancer cells; this process can go too far, however, leading to graft vs host disease, the most serious side effect of this treatment.[7]

Another stem-cell therapy, called Prochymal, was conditionally approved in Canada in 2012 for the management of acute graft-vs-host disease in children who are unresponsive to steroids.[8] It is an allogenic stem therapy based on mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) derived from the bone marrow of adult donors. MSCs are purified from the marrow, cultured and packaged, with up to 10,000 doses derived from a single donor. The doses are stored frozen until needed.[9]

The FDA has approved five hematopoietic stem-cell products derived from umbilical-cord blood, for the treatment of blood and immunological diseases.[10]

In 2014, the European Medicines Agency recommended approval of limbal stem cells for people with severe limbal stem cell deficiency due to burns in the eye.[11]

Stem cells are being studied for a number of reasons. The molecules and exosomes released from stem cells are also being studied in an effort to make medications.[12] In addition to the functions of the cells themselves, paracrine soluble factors produced by stem cells, known as the stem cell secretome, have been found to be another mechanism by which stem cell-based therapies mediate their effects in degenerative, autoimmune, and inflammatory diseases.[13]

To be used for research or treatment applications, large numbers of high-quality stem cells are needed. Thus, it is necessary to develop culture systems which produce pure populations of tissue-specific stem-cells in vitro without the loss of stem-cell potential. Two main approaches are taken for this purpose: two-dimensional and three-dimensional cell culture.[14]

Cell culture in two dimensions has been routinely performed in thousands of laboratories worldwide for the past four decades. In two-dimensional platforms, cells are typically exposed to a solid, rigid flat surface on the basal side and to liquid at the apicalsurface. Inhabiting such a two-dimensional rigid substrate requires a dramatic adaption for the surviving cells because they lack the extracellular matrix that is unique to each cell type and which may alter cell metabolism and reduce its functionality.[14]

Three-dimensional cell culture systems may create a biomimicking microenvironment for stem cells, resembling their native three-dimensional extracellular matrix (ECM). Advanced biomaterials have significantly contributed to three-dimensional cell culture systems in recent decades, and more unique and complex biomaterials have been proposed for improving stem-cell proliferation and controlled differentiation. Among them, nanostructured biomaterials are of particular interest because they have the advantage of a high surface-to-volume ratio, and they mimic the physical and biological features of natural ECM at the nanoscale.[14]

Research has been conducted on the effects of stem cells on animal models of brain degeneration, such as in Parkinson's disease, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Alzheimer's disease.[15][16][17] Preliminary studies related to multiple sclerosis have been conducted,[18][19][20] and a 2020 phase 2 trial found significantly improved outcomes for mesenchymal stem cell treated patients compared to those receiving a sham treatment.[21] In January 2021 the FDA approved the first clinical trial for an investigational stem cell therapy to restore lost brain cells in people with advanced Parkinsons disease.[22]

Healthy adult brains contain neural stem cells, which divide to maintain general stem-cell numbers, or become progenitor cells. In healthy adult laboratory animals, progenitor cells migrate within the brain and function primarily to maintain neuron populations for olfaction (the sense of smell). Pharmacological activation of endogenous neural stem cells has been reported to induce neuroprotection and behavioral recovery in adult rat models of neurological disorder.[23][24][25]

Stroke and traumatic brain injury lead to cell death, characterized by a loss of neurons and oligodendrocytes within the brain. Clinical and animal studies have been conducted into the use of stem cells in cases of spinal cord injury.[26][27][28][20]

A small-scale study on individuals 60 year or older with aging frailty showed, after intravenous treatment with Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) from healthy young donors, showed significant improvements in physical performance measures. MSC helps with the blockade of inflammation by decreasing it, causing the effects of frailty to reverse.

Stem cells are studied in people with severe heart disease.[29] The work by Bodo-Eckehard Strauer[30] was discredited by identifying hundreds of factual contradictions.[31] Among several clinical trials reporting that adult stem cell therapy is safe and effective, actual evidence of benefit has been reported from only a few studies.[32] Some preliminary clinical trials achieved only modest improvements in heart function following use of bone marrow stem cell therapy.[33][34]

Stem-cell therapy for treatment of myocardial infarction usually makes use of autologous bone-marrow stem cells, but other types of adult stem cells may be used, such as adipose-derived stem cells.[35]

Possible mechanisms of recovery include:[15]

In 2013, studies of autologous bone-marrow stem cells on ventricular function were found to contain "hundreds" of discrepancies.[36] Critics report that of 48 reports, just five underlying trials seemed to be used, and that in many cases whether they were randomized or merely observational accepter-versus-rejecter, was contradictory between reports of the same trial. One pair of reports of identical baseline characteristics and final results, was presented in two publications as, respectively, a 578-patient randomized trial and as a 391-subject observational study. Other reports required (impossible) negative standard deviations in subsets of people, or contained fractional subjects, negative NYHA classes. Overall, many more people were reported as having receiving stem cells in trials, than the number of stem cells processed in the hospital's laboratory during that time. A university investigation, closed in 2012 without reporting, was reopened in July 2013.[37]

In 2014, a meta-analysis on stem cell therapy using bone-marrow stem cells for heart disease revealed discrepancies in published clinical trial reports, whereby studies with a higher number of discrepancies showed an increase in effect sizes.[38] Another meta-analysis based on the intra-subject data of 12 randomized trials was unable to find any significant benefits of stem cell therapy on primary endpoints, such as major adverse events or increase in heart function measures, concluding there was no benefit.[39]

The TIME trial, which used a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial design, concluded that "bone marrow mononuclear cells administration did not improve recovery of LV function over 2 years" in people who had a myocardial infarction.[40] Accordingly, the BOOST-2 trial conducted in 10 medical centers in Germany and Norway reported that the trial result "does not support the use of nucleated BMCs in patients with STEMI and moderately reduced LVEF".[41] Furthermore, the trial also did not meet any other secondary MRI endpoints,[42] leading to a conclusion that intracoronary bone marrow stem cell therapy does not offer a functional or clinical benefit.[43]

The specificity of the human immune-cell repertoire is what allows the human body to defend itself from rapidly adapting antigens. However, the immune system is vulnerable to degradation upon the pathogenesis of disease, and because of the critical role that it plays in overall defense, its degradation is often fatal to the organism as a whole. Diseases of hematopoietic cells are diagnosed and classified via a subspecialty of pathology known as hematopathology. The specificity of the immune cells is what allows recognition of foreign antigens, causing further challenges in the treatment of immune disease. Identical matches between donor and recipient must be made for successful transplantation treatments, but matches are uncommon, even between first-degree relatives. Research using both hematopoietic adult stem cells and embryonic stem cells has provided insight into the possible mechanisms and methods of treatment for many of these ailments.[44]

Fully mature human red blood cells may be generated ex vivo by hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), which are precursors of red blood cells. In this process, HSCs are grown together with stromal cells, creating an environment that mimics the conditions of bone marrow, the natural site of red-blood-cell growth. Erythropoietin, a growth factor, is added, coaxing the stem cells to complete terminal differentiation into red blood cells.[45] Further research into this technique should have potential benefits to gene therapy, blood transfusion, and topical medicine.

In 2004, scientists at King's College London discovered a way to cultivate a complete tooth in mice[46] and were able to grow bioengineered teeth stand-alone in the laboratory. Researchers are confident that the tooth regeneration technology can be used to grow live teeth in people.

In theory, stem cells taken from the patient could be coaxed in the lab turning into a tooth bud which, when implanted in the gums, will give rise to a new tooth, and would be expected to be grown in a time over three weeks.[47] It will fuse with the jawbone and release chemicals that encourage nerves and blood vessels to connect with it. The process is similar to what happens when humans grow their original adult teeth. Many challenges remain, however, before stem cells could be a choice for the replacement of missing teeth in the future.[48][49]

Heller has reported success in re-growing cochlea hair cells with the use of embryonic stem cells.[50]

In a 2019 review that looked at hearing regeneration and regenerative medicine, stem cell-derived otic progenitors have the potential to greatly improve hearing.[51]

Since 2003, researchers have successfully transplanted corneal stem cells into damaged eyes to restore vision. "Sheets of retinal cells used by the team are harvested from aborted fetuses, which some people find objectionable." When these sheets are transplanted over the damaged cornea, the stem cells stimulate renewed repair, eventually restore vision.[52] The latest such development was in June 2005, when researchers at the Queen Victoria Hospital of Sussex, England were able to restore the sight of forty people using the same technique. The group, led by Sheraz Daya, was able to successfully use adult stem cells obtained from the patient, a relative, or even a cadaver. Further rounds of trials are ongoing.[53]

People with Type 1 diabetes lose the function of insulin-producing beta cells within the pancreas.[54] In recent experiments, scientists have been able to coax embryonic stem cell to turn into beta cells in the lab. In theory if the beta cell is transplanted successfully, they will be able to replace malfunctioning ones in a diabetic patient.[55]

Use of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) derived from adult stem cells is under preliminary research for potential orthopedic applications in bone and muscle trauma, cartilage repair, osteoarthritis, intervertebral disc surgery, rotator cuff surgery, and musculoskeletal disorders, among others.[56] Other areas of orthopedic research for uses of MSCs include tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.[56]

Stem cells can also be used to stimulate the growth of human tissues. In an adult, wounded tissue is most often replaced by scar tissue, which is characterized in the skin by disorganized collagen structure, loss of hair follicles and irregular vascular structure. In the case of wounded fetal tissue, however, wounded tissue is replaced with normal tissue through the activity of stem cells.[57] A possible method for tissue regeneration in adults is to place adult stem cell "seeds" inside a tissue bed "soil" in a wound bed and allow the stem cells to stimulate differentiation in the tissue bed cells. This method elicits a regenerative response more similar to fetal wound-healing than adult scar tissue formation.[57] Researchers are still investigating different aspects of the "soil" tissue that are conducive to regeneration.[57] Because of the general healing capabilities of stem cells, they have gained interest for the treatment of cutaneous wounds, such as in skin cancer.[58]

Destruction of the immune system by the HIV is driven by the loss of CD4+ T cells in the peripheral blood and lymphoid tissues. Viral entry into CD4+ cells is mediated by the interaction with a cellular chemokine receptor, the most common of which are CCR5 and CXCR4. Because subsequent viral replication requires cellular gene expression processes, activated CD4+ cells are the primary targets of productive HIV infection.[59] Recently scientists have been investigating an alternative approach to treating HIV-1/AIDS, based on the creation of a disease-resistant immune system through transplantation of autologous, gene-modified (HIV-1-resistant) hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (GM-HSPC).[60]

Stem cells are thought to mediate repair via five primary mechanisms: 1) providing an anti-inflammatory effect, 2) homing to damaged tissues and recruiting other cells, such as endothelial progenitor cells, that are necessary for tissue growth, 3) supporting tissue remodeling over scar formation, 4) inhibiting apoptosis, and 5) differentiating into bone, cartilage, tendon, and ligament tissue.[61][62]

To further enrich blood supply to the damaged areas, and consequently promote tissue regeneration, platelet-rich plasma could be used in conjunction with stem cell transplantation.[63][64] The efficacy of some stem cell populations may also be affected by the method of delivery; for instance, to regenerate bone, stem cells are often introduced in a scaffold where they produce the minerals necessary for generation of functional bone.[63][64][65][66]

Stem cells have also been shown to have a low immunogenicity due to the relatively low number of MHC molecules found on their surface. In addition, they have been found to secrete chemokines that alter the immune response and promote tolerance of the new tissue. This allows for allogeneic treatments to be performed without a high rejection risk.[67]

The ability to grow up functional adult tissues indefinitely in culture through Directed differentiation creates new opportunities for drug research. Researchers are able to grow up differentiated cell lines and then test new drugs on each cell type to examine possible interactions in vitro before performing in vivo studies. This is critical in the development of drugs for use in veterinary research because of the possibilities of species-specific interactions. The hope is that having these cell lines available for research use will reduce the need for research animals used because effects on human tissue in vitro will provide insight not normally known before the animal testing phase.[68]

Stem cells are being explored for use in conservation efforts. Spermatogonial stem cells have been harvested from a rat and placed into a mouse host and fully mature sperm were produced with the ability to produce viable offspring. Currently research is underway to find suitable hosts for the introduction of donor spermatogonial stem cells. If this becomes a viable option for conservationists, sperm can be produced from high genetic quality individuals who die before reaching sexual maturity, preserving a line that would otherwise be lost.[69]

Most stem cells intended for regenerative therapy are generally isolated either from the patient's bone marrow or from adipose tissue.[64][66] Mesenchymal stem cells can differentiate into the cells that make up bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments, as well as muscle, neural and other progenitor tissues. They have been the main type of stem cells studied in the treatment of diseases affecting these tissues.[70][71] The number of stem cells transplanted into damaged tissue may alter the efficacy of treatment. Accordingly, stem cells derived from bone marrow aspirates, for instance, are cultured in specialized laboratories for expansion to millions of cells.[64][66] Although adipose-derived tissue also requires processing prior to use, the culturing methodology for adipose-derived stem cells is not as extensive as that for bone marrow-derived cells.[72] While it is thought that bone-marrow-derived stem cells are preferred for bone, cartilage, ligament, and tendon repair, others believe that the less challenging collection techniques and the multi-cellular microenvironment already present in adipose-derived stem cell fractions make the latter the preferred source for autologous transplantation.[63]

New sources of mesenchymal stem cells are being researched, including stem cells present in the skin and dermis which are of interest because of the ease at which they can be harvested with minimal risk to the animal.[73] Hematopoietic stem cells have also been discovered to be travelling in the blood stream and possess equal differentiating ability as other mesenchymal stem cells, again with a very non-invasive harvesting technique.[74]

There has been more recent interest in the use of extra embryonic mesenchymal stem cells. Research is underway to examine the differentiating capabilities of stem cells found in the umbilical cord, yolk sac and placenta of different animals. These stem cells are thought to have more differentiating ability than their adult counterparts, including the ability to more readily form tissues of endodermal and ectodermal origin.[67]

There is widespread controversy over the use of human embryonic stem cells. This controversy primarily targets the techniques used to derive new embryonic stem cell lines, which often requires the destruction of the blastocyst. Opposition to the use of human embryonic stem cells in research is often based on philosophical, moral, or religious objections.[75] There is other stem cell research that does not involve the destruction of a human embryo, and such research involves adult stem cells, amniotic stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem cells.

On 23 January 2009, the US Food and Drug Administration gave clearance to Geron Corporation for the initiation of the first clinical trial of an embryonic stem-cell-based therapy on humans. The trial aimed to evaluate the drug GRNOPC1, embryonic stem cell-derived oligodendrocyte progenitor cells, on people with acute spinal cord injury. The trial was discontinued in November 2011 so that the company could focus on therapies in the "current environment of capital scarcity and uncertain economic conditions".[76] In 2013 biotechnology and regenerative medicine company BioTime (AMEX:BTX) acquired Geron's stem cell assets in a stock transaction, with the aim of restarting the clinical trial.[77]

Scientists have reported that MSCs when transfused immediately within few hours post thawing may show reduced function or show decreased efficacy in treating diseases as compared to those MSCs which are in log phase of cell growth (fresh), so cryopreserved MSCs should be brought back into log phase of cell growth in invitro culture before administration. Re-culturing of MSCs will help in recovering from the shock the cells get during freezing and thawing. Various MSC clinical trials which used cryopreserved product immediately post thaw have failed as compared to those clinical trials which used fresh MSCs.[78]

Research has been conducted on horses, dogs, and cats can benefit the development of stem cell treatments in veterinary medicine and can target a wide range of injuries and diseases such as myocardial infarction, stroke, tendon and ligament damage, osteoarthritis, osteochondrosis and muscular dystrophy both in large animals, as well as humans.[79][80][81][82] While investigation of cell-based therapeutics generally reflects human medical needs, the high degree of frequency and severity of certain injuries in racehorses has put veterinary medicine at the forefront of this novel regenerative approach.[83] Companion animals can serve as clinically relevant models that closely mimic human disease.[84][85]

Veterinary applications of stem cell therapy as a means of tissue regeneration have been largely shaped by research that began with the use of adult-derived mesenchymal stem cells to treat animals with injuries or defects affecting bone, cartilage, ligaments and/or tendons.[86][70][87] There are two main categories of stem cells used for treatments: allogeneic stem cells derived from a genetically different donor within the same species[66][88] and autologous mesenchymal stem cells, derived from the patient prior to use in various treatments.[63] A third category, xenogenic stem cells, or stem cells derived from different species, are used primarily for research purposes, especially for human treatments.[68]

Bone has a unique and well documented natural healing process that normally is sufficient to repair fractures and other common injuries. Misaligned breaks due to severe trauma, as well as treatments like tumor resections of bone cancer, are prone to improper healing if left to the natural process alone. Scaffolds composed of natural and artificial components are seeded with mesenchymal stem cells and placed in the defect. Within four weeks of placing the scaffold, newly formed bone begins to integrate with the old bone and within 32 weeks, full union is achieved.[89] Further studies are necessary to fully characterize the use of cell-based therapeutics for treatment of bone fractures.

Stem cells have been used to treat degenerative bone diseases. The normally recommended treatment for dogs that have LeggCalvePerthes disease is to remove the head of the femur after the degeneration has progressed. Recently, mesenchymal stem cells have been injected directly in to the head of the femur, with success not only in bone regeneration, but also in pain reduction.[89]

Autologous stem cell-based treatments for ligament injury, tendon injury, osteoarthritis, osteochondrosis, and sub-chondral bone cysts have been commercially available to practicing veterinarians to treat horses since 2003 in the United States and since 2006 in the United Kingdom. Autologous stem cell based treatments for tendon injury, ligament injury, and osteoarthritis in dogs have been available to veterinarians in the United States since 2005. Over 3000 privately owned horses and dogs have been treated with autologous adipose-derived stem cells. The efficacy of these treatments has been shown in double-blind clinical trials for dogs with osteoarthritis of the hip and elbow and horses with tendon damage.[90][91]

Race horses are especially prone to injuries of the tendon and ligaments. Conventional therapies are very unsuccessful in returning the horse to full functioning potential. Natural healing, guided by the conventional treatments, leads to the formation of fibrous scar tissue that reduces flexibility and full joint movement. Traditional treatments prevented a large number of horses from returning to full activity and also have a high incidence of re-injury due to the stiff nature of the scarred tendon. Introduction of both bone marrow and adipose derived stem cells, along with natural mechanical stimulus promoted the regeneration of tendon tissue. The natural movement promoted the alignment of the new fibers and tendocytes with the natural alignment found in uninjured tendons. Stem cell treatment not only allowed more horses to return to full duty and also greatly reduced the re-injury rate over a three-year period.[67]

The use of embryonic stem cells has also been applied to tendon repair. The embryonic stem cells were shown to have a better survival rate in the tendon as well as better migrating capabilities to reach all areas of damaged tendon. The overall repair quality was also higher, with better tendon architecture and collagen formed. There was also no tumor formation seen during the three-month experimental period. Long-term studies need to be carried out to examine the long-term efficacy and risks associated with the use of embryonic stem cells.[67] Similar results have been found in small animals.[67]

Osteoarthritis is the main cause of joint pain both in animals and humans. Horses and dogs are most frequently affected by arthritis. Natural cartilage regeneration is very limited. Different types of mesenchymal stem cells and other additives are still being researched to find the best type of cell and method for long-term treatment.[67]

Adipose-derived mesenchymal cells are currently the most often used for stem cell treatment of osteoarthritis because of the non-invasive harvesting. This is a recently developed, non-invasive technique developed for easier clinical use. Dogs receiving this treatment showed greater flexibility in their joints and less pain.[92]

Stem cells have successfully been used to ameliorate healing in the heart after myocardial infarction in dogs. Adipose and bone marrow derived stem cells were removed and induced to a cardiac cell fate before being injected into the heart. The heart was found to have improved contractility and a reduction in the damaged area four weeks after the stem cells were applied.[93]

A different trial is underway for a patch made of a porous substance onto which the stem cells are "seeded" in order to induce tissue regeneration in heart defects. Tissue was regenerated and the patch was well incorporated into the heart tissue. This is thought to be due, in part, to improved angiogenesis and reduction of inflammation. Although cardiomyocytes were produced from the mesenchymal stem cells, they did not appear to be contractile. Other treatments that induced a cardiac fate in the cells before transplanting had greater success at creating contractile heart tissue.[94]

Recent research, such as the European nTRACK research project, aims to demonstrate that multimodal nanoparticles can structurally and functionally track stem cell in muscle regeneration therapy. The idea is to label stem cells with gold nano-particles that are fully characterised for uptake, functionality, and safety. The labelled stem cells will be injected into an injured muscle and tracked using imaging systems.[95] However, the system still needs to be demonstrated at lab scale.

Spinal cord injuries are one of the most common traumas brought into veterinary hospitals.[89] Spinal injuries occur in two ways after the trauma: the primary mechanical damage, and in secondary processes, like inflammation and scar formation, in the days following the trauma. These cells involved in the secondary damage response secrete factors that promote scar formation and inhibit cellular regeneration. Mesenchymal stem cells that are induced to a neural cell fate are loaded onto a porous scaffold and are then implanted at the site of injury. The cells and scaffold secrete factors that counteract those secreted by scar forming cells and promote neural regeneration. Eight weeks later, dogs treated with stem cells showed immense improvement over those treated with conventional therapies. Dogs treated with stem cells were able to occasionally support their own weight, which has not been seen in dogs undergoing conventional therapies.[96][97][98]

In a study to evaluate the treatment of experimentally induced MS in dogs using laser activated non-expanded adipose derived stem cells. The results showed amelioration of the clinical signs over time confirmed by the resolution of the previous lesions on MRI. Positive migration of the injected cells to the site of lesion, increased remyelination detected by Myelin Basic Proteins, positive differentiation into Olig2 positive oligodendrocytes, prevented the glial scar formation and restored axonal architecture.[20]

Treatments are also in clinical trials to repair and regenerate peripheral nerves. Peripheral nerves are more likely to be damaged, but the effects of the damage are not as widespread as seen in injuries to the spinal cord. Treatments are currently in clinical trials to repair severed nerves, with early success. Stem cells induced to a neural fate injected in to a severed nerve. Within four weeks, regeneration of previously damaged stem cells and completely formed nerve bundles were observed.[73]

Stem cells are also in clinical phases for treatment in ophthalmology. Hematopoietic stem cells have been used to treat corneal ulcers of different origin of several horses. These ulcers were resistant to conventional treatments available, but quickly responded positively to the stem cell treatment. Stem cells were also able to restore sight in one eye of a horse with retinal detachment, allowing the horse to return to daily activities.[74]

In the late 1990s and early 2000s, there was an initial wave of companies and clinics offering stem cell therapy, while not substantiating health claims or having regulatory approval.[99] By 2012, a second wave of companies and clinics had emerged, usually located in developing countries where medicine is less regulated and offering stem cell therapies on a medical tourism model.[100][101] Like the first wave companies and clinics, they made similar strong, but unsubstantiated, claims, mainly by clinics in the United States, Mexico, Thailand, India, and South Africa.[100][101] By 2016, research indicated that there were more than 550 stem cell clinics in the US alone selling generally unproven therapies for a wide array of medical conditions in almost every state in the country,[102] altering the dynamic of stem cell tourism. In 2018, the FDA sent a warning letter to StemGenex Biologic Laboratories in San Diego, which marketed a service in which it took body fat from people, processed it into mixtures it said contained various forms of stem cells, and administered it back to the person by inhalation, intravenously, or infusion into their spinal cords; the company said the treatment was useful for many chronic and life-threatening conditions.[103]

Costs of stem cell therapies range widely by clinic, condition, and cell type, but most commonly range between $10,000-$20,000.[104] Insurance does not cover stem cell injections at clinics so patients often use on-line fundraising.[105] In 2018, the US Federal Trade Commission found health centers and an individual physician making unsubstantiated claims for stem cell therapies, and forced refunds of some $500,000.[106] The FDA filed suit against two stem cell clinic firms around the same time, seeking permanent injunctions against their marketing and use of unapproved adipose stem cell products.[107]

Although according to the NIH no stem cell treatments have been approved for COVID-19 and the agency recommends against the use of MSCs for the disease,[108] some stem cell clinics began marketing both unproven and non-FDA-approved stem cells and exosomes for COVID-19 in 2020.[109] The FDA took prompt action by sending letters to the firms in question.[110][111] The FTC also warned a stem cell firm for COVID-19-related marketing.[112][113]

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Stem-cell therapy - Wikipedia

Stem Cell Transplantation: What it Is, Process & Procedure

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OverviewWhat is a stem cell transplant?

Healthcare providers use stem cell transplants to treat people who have life-threatening cancer or blood diseases caused by abnormal blood cells. A stem cell transplant helps your body replace those blood cells with healthy or normal blood cells. If you receive a stem cell transplant, your provider may use your own healthy stem cells or donor stem cells.

Your blood cells come from stem cells in your bone marrow. Your bone marrow constantly creates new stem cells that become blood cells. Stem cell transplants can involve stem cells taken from bone marrow or from blood. Providers sometimes refer to stem cell and bone marrow transplants as haematopoietic stem cell transplants (HSCT). This article focuses on stem cells taken from blood.

Healthcare providers use stem cells to replace unhealthy blood cells that cause conditions such as several types of leukemia, lymphoma and testicular cancer. They also use transplanted stem cells to treat several types of anemia. Some people who have multiple sclerosis may benefit by receiving healthy stem cells. Researchers are investigating ways to treat other autoimmune diseases with stem cell transplants.

Healthcare providers typically use stem cell transplants to treat life-threatening cancer or blood diseases. Unfortunately, not everyone who has those conditions can have the procedure. Here are factors providers take into consideration:

Recently data reported nearly 23,000 people had stem cell transplants in 2018.

To understand how stem cell transplants work, it may help to know more about stem cells and their role in your body:

Healthcare providers obtain stem cells from several sources:

If youre a candidate for a stem cell transplant, your healthcare provider will perform the following tests to confirm youre physically able to manage transplantation processes, including pre-treatment chemotherapy called conditioning and transplantation side effects:

Before your blood tests, your provider may place a central venous catheter (CVC) in one of the large veins in your upper chest. CVCs are tubes that serve as central lines that providers use to take blood and provide medication and fluids. CVCs eliminate repeated needle sticks to draw blood or insert intravenous tubes throughout the transplantation process.

Transplant conditioning is intensive chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy that kills cancer cells in your bone marrow. Conditioning also kills existing blood cells.

If youre receiving your own stem cells, your provider may give you medication to boost your stem cell production. Theyll do follow-up blood tests to check on stem cell production.

If youre receiving your own stem cells, your providers will take blood so they can remove healthy stem cells for transplant. . To do that, they connect veins in both of your arms to a cell separator machine. The machine pulls your blood from one arm, filters the blood and then returns it to through your other arm. This process doesnt hurt. Providers may need to take blood more than once to ensure they have enough stem cells to transplant. The actual transplantation involves receiving your stem cells via your CVC.

Just like someone receiving their own cells, youll receive healthy stem cells via your CVC.

Your new stem cells will need time to produce new blood cells. If you received donor stem cells, your transplanted stem cells will replace unhealthy stem cells and begin to build a new immune system. This process is engraftment.

Either way, you may need to stay in or close to the hospital for several months so your healthcare providers can support your recovery and monitor your progress. Heres what you can expect after your stem cell transplant:

Successful stem cell transplants may help people when previous treatments dont slow or eliminate certain cancers.

The greatest risk is that youll go through the procedure and your transplanted stem cells cant slow or eliminate your illness.

Allogeneic and autologous stem cell transplants have different complications. Allogeneic stem cell transplants can result in graft versus host disease. This happens when your immune system attacks new stem cells. Potential complications will vary based on your overall health, age and previous treatment. If youre considering a stem cell transplant, your healthcare provider will outline potential complications so you can weigh those risks against potential benefits.

It can take several weeks to several months to recover from a stem cell transplant. Your healthcare provider may recommend you stay in or near the hospital or transplant center for the first 100 days after your procedure.

Its difficult to calculate an overall success rate. That said, the most recent data show the highest number of stem cell transplants involved people with multiple myeloma or Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma who received autologous stem cell transplants. Here is information on three-year survival rates:

A successful stem cell transplant can change your life, curing your condition or slowing its growth. But its not an overnight transformation. It can take a year or more for you to recover. Here are some challenges and ways to overcome them:

You may have days when you feel exhausted and days when you feel fine. A hard day doesnt mean youre not doing well. It means you need to give yourself a break and take it easy.

Youll have regular follow-up appointments with your provider. But its important to remember your immune system likely will be weak for a year or so after your transplantation. Contact your provider right away if you develop any of the following symptoms:

A note from Cleveland Clinic

If youve been coping with cancer or a blood disease, a stem cell transplant can be a new lease on life. It can mean hope for a cure or remission when other treatments havent worked. But stem cell transplants come with demanding physical challenges and significant risks. Not everyone who has cancer or blood conditions is a candidate for a stem cell transplant. Unfortunately, not everyone who is a candidate but needs donor stem cells finds a donor. If youre considering a stem cell transplant, talk to your healthcare provider about potential risks and benefits. Theyll evaluate your situation, your options and potential outcomes.

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Stem Cell Transplantation: What it Is, Process & Procedure

Stem Cell Therapy for Arthritis | Arthritis-health

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Experts are researching ways to use stem cells to treat arthritis in the knee and other joints. Many doctors already use stem cell therapy to treat arthritis, but it is not considered standard practice.

There is a lot of debate around stem cell treatment, and it is helpful for potential patients to understand what stem cells are and the issues surrounding their use in arthritis therapy.

Stem cells are located throughout the body. What makes stem cells special is that they can:

See What Are Stem Cells?

Advocates of stem cell treatments hypothesize that, when placed into a certain environment, stem cells can transform to accommodate a certain need. For example, stem cells that are placed near damaged cartilage are hypothesized to develop into cartilage tissue.

See What Is Cartilage?

Stem cells can be applied during a surgery (such as the surgical repair of a torn knee meniscus) or delivered through injections directly into the arthritis joint.

Watch: Knee Meniscus Tear Video

When administering stem cell injections, many physicians use medical imaging, such as ultrasound, in order to deliver cells precisely to the site of cartilage damage.

The most common type of stem cells used for treating arthritis are mesenchymal stem cells. Mesenchymal stem cells are usually collected from the patients fat tissue, blood, or bone marrow.

The process of collecting cells is often called harvesting.

Bone marrow is usually taken from the pelvic bone using a needle and syringe, a process called bone marrow aspiration. The patient is given a local anesthetic and may also be given a sedative before the procedure.

There are no professional medical guidelines for who can and cannot receive stem cell therapy for arthritis. For now, the decision about who gets stem cell therapy is up to patients and doctors.

See Arthritis Treatment Specialists

There is some evidence that people with severe arthritis can benefit from stem cell therapy. Pers YM, Rackwitz L, Ferreira R, et al. Adipose Mesenchymal Stromal Cell-Based Therapy for Severe Osteoarthritis of the Knee: A Phase I Dose-Escalation Trial. Stem Cells Transl Med. 2016;5(7):847-56. Most research indicates that younger patients who have relatively mild osteoarthritis or cartilage damage see the most benefit. Filardo G, Perdisa F, Roffi A, Marcacci M, Kon E. Stem cells in articular cartilage regeneration. J Orthop Surg Res. 2016;11:42.

See What Is Osteoarthritis?

Some doctors have certain criteria for recommending stem cell therapy. For example, they only recommend it to patients who are healthy and have relatively little cartilage damage. Other doctors make recommendations on a case-by-case basis.

Stem cell therapy is a promising but still unproven treatment, and will not be covered by most insurance companies.

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Stem Cell Therapy for Arthritis | Arthritis-health

FDA Warns About Stem Cell Therapies | FDA – U.S. Food and Drug …

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Researchers hope stem cells will one day be effective in the treatment of many medical conditions and diseases. But unproven stem cell treatments can be unsafeso get all of the facts if youre considering any treatment.

Stem cells have been called everything from cure-alls to miracle treatments. But dont believe the hype. Some unscrupulous providers offer stem cell products that are both unapproved and unproven. So beware of potentially dangerous proceduresand confirm whats really being offered before you consider any treatment.

The facts: Stem cell therapies may offer the potential to treat diseases or conditions for which few treatments exist. Sometimes called the bodys master cells, stem cells are the cells that develop into blood, brain, bones, and all of the bodys organs. They have the potential to repair, restore, replace, and regenerate cells, and could possibly be used to treat many medical conditions and diseases.

But the U.S. Food and Drug Administration is concerned that some patients seeking cures and remedies are vulnerable to stem cell treatments that are illegal and potentially harmful. And the FDA is increasing its oversight and enforcement to protect people from dishonest and unscrupulous stem cell clinics, while continuing to encourage innovation so that the medical industry can properly harness the potential of stem cell products.

To do your part to stay safe, make sure that any stem cell treatment you are considering is either:

And see the boxed section below for more advice.

The FDA has the authority to regulate stem cell products in the United States.

Today, doctors routinely use stem cells that come from bone marrow or blood in transplant procedures to treat patients with cancer and disorders of the blood and immune system.

With limited exceptions, investigational products must also go through a thorough FDA review process as investigators prepare to determine the safety and effectiveness of products in well-controlled human studies, called clinical trials. The FDA has reviewed many stem cell products for use in these studies.

As part of the FDAs review, investigators must show how each product will be manufactured so the FDA can make sure appropriate steps are being taken to help assure the products safety, purity, and strength (potency). The FDA also requires sufficient data from animal studies to help evaluate any potential risks associated with product use. (You can learn more about clinical trials on the FDAs website.)

That said, some clinics may inappropriately advertise stem cell clinical trials without submitting an IND. Some clinics also may falsely advertise that FDA review and approval of the stem cell therapy is unnecessary. But when clinical trials are not conducted under an IND, it means that the FDA has not reviewed the experimental therapy to help make sure it is reasonably safe. So be cautious about these treatments.

About FDA-approved Products Derived from Stem Cells

The only stem cell-based products that are FDA-approved for use in the United States consist of blood-forming stem cells (hematopoietic progenitor cells) derived from cord blood.

These products are approved for limited use in patients with disorders that affect the body system that is involved in the production of blood (called the hematopoietic system). These FDA-approved stem cell products are listed on the FDA website. Bone marrow also is used for these treatments but is generally not regulated by the FDA for this use.

All medical treatments have benefits and risks. But unproven stem cell therapies can be particularly unsafe.

For instance, attendees at a 2016 FDA public workshop discussed several cases of severe adverse events. One patient became blind due to an injection of stem cells into the eye. Another patient received a spinal cord injection that caused the growth of a spinal tumor.

Other potential safety concerns for unproven treatments include:

Note: Even if stem cells are your own cells, there are still safety risks such as those noted above. In addition, if cells are manipulated after removal, there is a risk of contamination of the cells.

When stem cell products are used in unapproved waysor when they are processed in ways that are more than minimally manipulated, which relates to the nature and degree of processingthe FDA may take (and has already taken) a variety of administrative and judicial actions, including criminal enforcement, depending on the violations involved.

In August 2017, the FDA announced increased enforcement of regulations and oversight of stem cell clinics. To learn more, see the statement from FDA Commissioner Scott Gottlieb, M.D., on the FDA website.

And in March 2017, to further clarify the benefits and risks of stem cell therapy, the FDA published a perspective article in the New England Journal of Medicine.

The FDA will continue to help with the development and licensing of new stem cell therapies where the scientific evidence supports the products safety and effectiveness.

Know that the FDA plays a role in stem cell treatment oversight. You may be told that because these are your cells, the FDA does not need to review or approve the treatment. That is not true.

Stem cell products have the potential to treat many medical conditions and diseases. But for almost all of these products, it is not yet known whether the product has any benefitor if the product is safe to use.

If you're considering treatment in the United States:

If you're considering treatment in another country:

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FDA Warns About Stem Cell Therapies | FDA - U.S. Food and Drug ...