There is a large suite of scientific evidence that supports the picture of the expanding Universe ... [+] and the Big Bang, complete with dark energy. The late-time accelerated expansion is driving galaxies away from each other and rendering them unreachable, but there may be a way out.

For the first 7.8 billion years, the Universe unfolded exactly as scientists would have expected in the aftermath of the Big Bang. The Universe started off expanding at a tremendously rapid rate, while the gravitational influence of all the matter and energy worked to slow that expansion down. In many ways, the expanding Universe was a race between these two contenders: the initial expansion, which drives the material in the Universe apart, and gravitation, which works to pull everything back together. The Universe was a race, and the Big Bang was a starting gun.

But about 6 billion years ago, the unexpected occurred. The initial expansion didnt win; gravitation didnt win; nor did the two add up to some perfectly balanced tie. Instead, an extra effects began to show up, as though some new phenomenon was causing the expansion rate to speed up once again. This phenomenon known today as dark energy was first uncovered back in the 1990s, and the evidence for it has grown to reach overwhelming proportions today. It leads to an unsettling, empty, lonely fate for our Universe, but we still have some hope of outrunning it. Heres how.

The four possible fates of our Universe into the future; the last one appears to be the Universe we ... [+] live in, dominated by dark energy. Our observations of the Universe are not consistent without the inclusion of dark energy.

When we look back at a distant object in the Universe, were not seeing it exactly as it is today. Were not even seeing it exactly as it was when the light was emitted from it, either. Instead, what we actually observe is a combination of two effects:

That second effect is tremendously informative, because it tells us that if we can understand how mass, gravitation, motion, and emission and absorption take place, we can use all of the leftover information to reconstruct how the Universe has expanded over its history. By measuring sources at different distances from us and hence, with different light-travel times to our eyes we can learn how the Universe has expanded over its history.

The full suite of data can not only distinguish between a Universe with and without dark matter and ... [+] dark energy, but can teach us how the Universe has expanded over its history. It's very clear that the solid magenta line is the best fit to the data, favoring a Universe dominated by dark energy with no spatial curvature.

This is where that big surprise of dark energy came from: from the fact that, over the most recent 6 billion years, weve seen the Universe expand at a different rate than what the known forms of matter and radiation, even including dark matter, would indicate. It means that either:

Either way, however, what we see occurring is the same. On small scales, gravitation can win many individual battles throughout the Universe, creating star clusters, individual galaxies, galaxy groups, and even large galaxy clusters, some of which merge together over time.

The "raisin bread" model of the expanding Universe, where relative distances increase as the space ... [+] (dough) expands. Note that the more distant each raisin is from any other raisin, the faster it will appear to expand away from it.

On larger scales, however, gravity always loses out. This extra component to the Universe whether its a new force, a new source of energy, a new field, or a new understanding of gravity determines the fate of the Universe on the greatest cosmic scales of all. Whatever was gravitationally bound by the time the Universe reached 7.8 billion years of age will remain bound for all of cosmic time. But whatever wasnt yet bound together will never get there; these unbound structures will all expand away from one another, never to meet again.

You can visualize the Universe as a three-dimensional ball of bread dough with raisins distributed unevenly, even randomly, throughout it. The raisins each represent a bound individual structure: a galaxy, a group of galaxies, or even a massive galaxy cluster. The dough represents the fabric of space. As the dough expands in all three dimensions, the individual raisins all get farther apart. The farther apart two raisins initially are, the faster theyll appear to move away from each other the more that time goes on.

Our local supercluster, Laniakea, contains the Milky Way, our local group, the Virgo cluster, and ... [+] many smaller groups and clusters on the outskirts. However, each group and cluster is bound only to itself, and will be driven apart from the others due to dark energy and our expanding Universe. After 100 billion years, even the nearest galaxy beyond our own local group will be approximately a billion light years away, making it many thousands, and potentially millions of times fainter than the nearest galaxies appear today.

Because the Universe has dark energy in it, we know that every galaxy within our Local Group including the Milky Way, Andromeda, the Triangulum Galaxy, both Magellanic Clouds, and perhaps ~60 other dwarf galaxies is bound to us, meaning we behave as though were all part of the same raisin in the raisin bread.

But when we look out at any other raisin in the Universe, which can be any galaxy, galaxy group, or galaxy cluster beyond our own, heres what we find instead.

Given that we can see for 46 billion light-years in all directions, that means that already, only 6 billion years into the era of dark energy dominance, 94% of the presently observable Universe is already permanently unreachable.

The size of our visible Universe (yellow), along with the amount we can reach (magenta). The limit ... [+] of the visible Universe is 46.1 billion light-years, as that's the limit of how far away an object that emitted light that would just be reaching us today would be after expanding away from us for 13.8 billion years. However, beyond about 18 billion light-years, we can never access a galaxy even if we traveled towards it at the speed of light.

Or, at least, its unreachable if the following two things are true:

But either one of those assumptions can be wrong, and there are many different scenarios that can keep the rest of the Universe from speeding away until its forever beyond our reach. If we simply stayed put in our own Milky Way and waited for long enough, the night skies beyond our own Local Group (or whatever remains of it after all the galaxies have merged together) would be completely empty, with only the fading light from long-gone galaxies to keep us company. Here are the three most interesting ways we could possibly circumvent dark energy and visit the distant Universe for ourselves.

The far distant fates of the Universe offer a number of possibilities, but if dark energy is truly a ... [+] constant, as the data indicates, it will continue to follow the red curve. If it's not, however, a Big Crunch could still be in play, particularly if dark energy either drops in intensity or reverses its sign.

1.) Dark energy evolves over time. The best data we have, from the cosmic microwave background and the large-scale clustering of galaxies, points to dark energy being completely constant over time. But that isnt necessarily the case, as many different variable field scenarios can lead to dark energy changing strength (or even sign) over time. If dark energy either becomes weaker or becomes negative, rather than positive, the expansion will slow down and possibly even reverse, making these galaxies reachable again.

Measuring the necessary galaxies to test for this is also one of the major science goals of the Nancy Roman Telescope, which NASA is slated to construct and launch as its next astrophysics flagship mission after James Webb. Right now, our best observations show that dark energy is consistent with a cosmological constant, but with an uncertainty of about 12% on that figure. Roman will give us a measure of dark energy thats about 10 times more sensitive than our present data, teaching us if dark energy is different than our simple expectations by as little as 1%.

An artist's conception of a starship making use of the Alcubierre drive to travel at apparently ... [+] faster-than-light speeds. By compressing the space in front of you and expanding the space behind you, you could theoretically travel to a distant destination faster than special relativity allows.

2.) Bending or folding space enables us to take a cosmic short-cut. Sick of being limited by the speed of light in your attempts to journey through the Universe? Arent we all. Well, the idea of Star Treks Warp Drive might still be science fiction, but theres a real-life scientific possibility of making it a reality: the Alcubierre drive. In Einsteins General Relativity, its possible to fold, bend, or otherwise distort the fabric of space, enabling a fantastic possibility: compressing the space in front of you at the expense of expanding the space behind you.

If we could make this a reality, we could theoretically compress the space ahead of us, travel through it at a slower-than-light speed, and then arrive at a destination appearing to have traveled faster than light could! The only downside is to make this theoretical possibility a reality, wed need some form of negative energy or negative mass to exist. Theres an experiment happening at CERN right now to measure whether antimatter falls down or up in a gravitational field; if it falls up, the Alcubierre Drive might become a reality!

A scalar field in a false vacuum state. Note that the energy E is higher than that in the true ... [+] vacuum or ground state, but there is a barrier preventing the field from classically rolling down to the true vacuum. Note also how the lowest-energy (true vacuum) state is allowed to have a finite, positive, non-zero value. A smooth transition might not destroy the Universe.

3.) Dark energy is bound to inevitably decay. Perhaps dark energy only appears to have a constant energy density for the time being, and that given enough time, it will decay in some fashion. While much has been made of vacuum decay or the possibility that an immediate transition will knock the energy inherent to space down to a lower value, destroying the Universe as we know it instantly there are other forms of decay that are gradual and non-lethal, such as a conversion of energy from one form into another.

Its possible that this could simply result in the creation of a low density of particles: somewhere around one proton per cubic meter of space, at the cost of virtually eliminating dark energy. If this occurred, the expansion rate would change dramatically, as the Universe would immediately begin slowing down again. All of the distant galaxies, even the ones that appear unreachable today, would suddenly be within the reach of a relativistic spaceship. At close to the speed of light, we could potentially travel anywhere in the known Universe.

The travel time for a spacecraft to reach a destination if it accelerates at a constant rate of ... [+] Earth's surface gravity. Note that, given enough time, you can go anywhere in the visible Universe, particularly if dark energy no longer plays a role.

Its always possible, and we must always keep this possibility in mind, that something is wrong with our current understanding. Perhaps our measurements are biased and have led us to an incorrect conclusion, but that would require an enormous number of independent lines of evidence all being biased in the same way. Perhaps weve got the laws of gravity wrong; perhaps we live in a very special and unusual region of the Universe thats causing us to wrongly conclude that dark energy exists; perhaps theres a novel force or interaction that exists that we simply havent properly identified.

In science, however, we base our conclusions on the full suite of data and evidence we have at our disposal, keeping in mind that they may change over time as we gain new and better information. The expansion rate is changing over time in a way that requires dark energy as the dominant component in our Universe, and dark energy is consistent with it being a cosmological constant: its energy density doesnt appear to change with time. Unless dark energy reveals itself as something different or we find a short-cut through space, the majority of the observable Universe is forever beyond our reach already.

Excerpt from:

Can We Outrun Dark Energy In The Race To See The Universe? - Forbes

Travel enthusiasts and aspiring astronauts have a new aircraft to add to their bucket listVirgin Galactic has revealed the cabin interior of its highly anticipated SpaceshipTwo vehicle live on YouTube yesterday.

In just my second week as Virgin Galactics CEO, it is with great pride that I can lead our talented teams in revealing this latest milestone in our journey to space, Michael Colglazier, CEO of Virgin Galactic said in a press release. The spaceship cabin interior is in many ways the design centrepiece of the astronaut journey and what has been created will both facilitate and elevate a uniquely profound and transformational journey for the thousands who will fly.

The spacecraft itself was built in collaboration with London design agency, Seymourpowell, to include a sense of safety without distraction, so travellers can focus on absorbing periods of sensory intensity while offering each traveler a level of intimacy required to fully absorb the unforgettable experience.

In terms of aesthetics, the color palette of the cabin was curated to complement the architecture of the seats, the spacecraft itself, and the Under Armour-made astronaut spacesuits, with the golden metallics made to resemble desert sands and blues inspired by the celestial spaces and oceans below.

The seats have been made to match the dynamism of the flight, with a built-in, pilot-controlled recline mechanism which will position astronauts to manage G-forces during takeoff and landing phases while also freeing up space to allow for travelers to float through the cabin in zero gravity zones.

When we created Virgin Galactic, we started with what we believed would be an optimal customer experience and then built the spaceship around it, said Richard Branson, Founder of Virgin Group, adding that, we will continue with that ethos as we expand our fleet, build our operations and underpin Virgin Galactics position as the Spaceline for Earth.

The event also noted that the latest milestone will be available on a new, cutting-edge augmented reality enabled mobile app, which will be available to download for free at the App Store and Play Store before space tourists will officially be able to take off. We hope the new app will help bring the dream of space one step closer for space enthusiasts everywhere, added Colglazier.

Aspiring astronauts and space enthusiasts can now reserve front of the line access to the newly released spaceflight roundtrip for a US$1,000 deposit. For more information or to reserve your seat, be sure to check out the official Virgin Galactic website.

See also:Tatler's Guide to Going to Outer Space

View original post here:

Inside The Virgin Galactic Spacecraft That Aims To Take You To Space - Tatler Philippines

(CNN) The coronavirus pandemic has changed a lot of things -- the way we socialize, work, and the way we travel.

In a newly released concept, UK-based design studio PriestmanGoode has developed a post-pandemic cabin to focus on hygiene and personal space and keep passengers safe and relaxed.

Firstly, the firm has reimagined business and economy class. Passengers in "pure skies zones" -- previously known as economy -- will sit in a staggered seat configuration so that they can travel alone, as a couple, or in groups. Dividing screens are also placed at the end of every other row to further separate travelers, while in-flight entertainment systems have been removed in favor of the passenger's own devices.

Passengers will sit in a staggered seat configuration so they can travel in the group of their choosing.

PriestmanGoode

But some things never change: Flying business is always more fun than economy.

Those seated in "pure skies rooms" will fly in a fully enclosed personal space, partitioned by curtains and complete with light and temperature control systems, as well as a personal wardrobe and overhead storage and an in-flight entertainment system synchronized to the passenger's devices.

In-flight entertainment systems have been removed in favor of the passenger's own devices in "pure skies zones," previously known as economy.

PriestmanGoode

As well as comfort, the cabin also boasts hygiene credentials, with minimal split line seat design and antimicrobial materials.

The studio has also incorporated heat, ultraviolet UVC cleaning and fogging as part of the cabin's pre-boarding process, and notes that touch-free features run through the cabin.

"We've looked ahead to imagine future scenarios and taken into account new passenger behaviors driven by the global pandemic to ensure our designs can be implemented within a few years and will meet user and airline requirements for many years ahead," Nigel Goode, co-founding director at PriestmanGoode, said in a statement.

Although the cabins won't be a part of your travel experience in the immediate future -- according to PriestmanGoode, it can take three years to develop and certify them -- the firm thinks they will stand the test of time.

"With both passengers and airline employees at the heart of this project, we have not only taken on board present anxieties but also tried to ensure our solutions are future-proofed against future pandemics, recognizing the significant commitment and investment involved," he added.

The firm envisages design features made from antimicrobial materials.

PriestmanGoode

The company hopes that, through a combination of innovative design features, touch-free technology and material innovation, airlines will be able to both improve personal space and hygiene and reassure passengers -- which, they say, will be vital for the airline industry, even after the pandemic.

In a revised baseline, the body, which represents 290 airlines, forecast that international passenger traffic will drop 55% in 2020, compared to 2019, blaming the sluggish recovery on a number of factors, including a lack of consumer confidence, the decline in business travel, and fresh coronavirus case spikes.

View original post here:

What the airplane cabin of the future might look like - CNN

PLAYERS are valuable commodities.

So when they thrash out contracts with the world's biggest clubs, its important to get everything right and nothing's left to chance.

8

But there are times when stipulations are put in place by player and club to protect their interests, to let them fulfil their hobbies, or managers just don't trust them.

SunSport looks back at the wackiest requested to and by players.

When the Polish forward was at Borussia Dortmund in the last year of his contract Bayern Munich and Real Madrid were jostling for his signature.

And in leaked documents, Real Madrid's offer seemed lucrative.

Alongside a 166,000-per-week deal and a 10million signing-on fee were several requests they didn't want daredevil Lewandowski to do while he was their property.

Skiing, paragliding, climbing, going on a motorboat and even riding a motorbike were big 'no-nos' for Real Madrid's hierarchy... so that's why signed for Bayern.

8

8

WHEN negotiating a contract, its important to be 100 per cent clear about what is being stipulated.

When German forward Reina moved to Arminia Bielefeld in 1996, he demanded the club build him a house for every year of his contract.

The club accepted.

However, Reina didnt specify what size he required.

And Arminia provided him with a house made of Lego for the next three years.

8

FORMER Real Madrid and AC Milan midfielder was excluded from Argentinas 1998 World Cup squad for a bizarre reason.

Manager Daniel Passarella had refused to pick homosexuals or players with earrings and long hair.

Redondo was guilty of the latter.

He said: I was in great form. But Passarella had particular ideas about discipline and wanted me to have my hair cut.

I didnt see what that had to do with playing football so I said no.

8

CONGOLESE midfielder moved from Karlsruher to Eintracht Frankfurt in 1999.

However, he had one simple request: that his new club pay for his wife to have cooking lessons.

Were not sure Mrs Guie-Mien took too kindly to this demand.

Though, she was not available for comment at the time.

8

THE SWEDE moved to Sunderland in 1999 but the Wearsiders had one stipulation the former Arsenal man had to adhere to.

Schwarz was told that any potential flights into space would not be tolerated.

The Black Cats chief exec John Flicking said at the time: One of Schwarzs advisers has, indeed, got one of the places on the commercial flights [into space, due to take place in 2002].

And we were worried that he may wish to take Stefan along with him. So we thought wed better get things tied up now rather than at the time of the flight.

In fact, rather than managing to go up, his career ended when Sunderland went down in 2003.

8

THE former defender once admitted to eating 212 steak and kidney pies every year.

And Crystal Palace were advised Ruddock did come with some extra baggage when they signed him on a free in 2000.

Ex-Eagles chairman Simon Jordan wrote in his autobiography: On approaching West Ham I discovered he was a free transfer, although he did have a weighty salary which was not the only weighty thing about him.

Harry Redknapp, the West Ham manager at the time, told me to put in a weight clause.

So I decided to put a 10 per cent penalty on the contract we were proposing to offer him if he was over the recommended weight of 99.8kg, which by the way was still frigging huge.

Ruddocks Palace debut was allegedly delayed because the club couldnt find a pair of shorts big enough for him.

8

MORE recently Japanese legend Keisuke Honda joined Botafogo.

But moving to Brazil's crime-ridden city of Rio de Janeiro had the midfielder fearing for his safety.

So he stipulated he would need an ARMOURED VEHICLE as part of the deal.

More incredibly, Botafogo agreed.

Continue reading here:

The craziest contract demands revealed, including no space travel, weight clauses and cooking lessons - The Irish Sun

For someone who wants everyone to switch to solar panels, Auke tweeted something quite noteworthy. He explained how we can accelerate the development of nuclear energy by designing and rigorously testing nuclear power plants in the digital world. For many scientists, engineers, and other nuclear energy experts, building a power plant is, as Auke says, a once in a lifetime project. And it is precisely this reason why the technology lags behind solar cells. After all, the latter is made in smaller quantities and far more frequently, resulting in more rapid advances in the technology. The idea behind this is that the more often you do something, the more you learn from it.

Im not an opponent! I just think its currently too expensive and slow. I dont fear it very much (I think climate change is a much bigger threat) but I understand it. Current power plants can get overheated and get a melt down, but the chance is very small. When atoms are split, radioactive waste is produced, which can also be used to make bombs. Every country with nuclear energy that wants to make a bomb can do so. And storing waste safely for tens of thousands of years is no small challenge either.

That fear mainly has to do with current nuclear fission, that splits uranium atoms in large plants. I think things like thorium power plants dont have these issues but development takes too long. And I love the idea of producing smaller powerplants but this is at current just an idea.

What attracts me more is nuclear fusion, where the atomic nuclei are not split but instead merged together. They are smaller atoms and are very common they are found in seawater, for example. 1 gram of nuclear fusion material produces as much energy as 4000 kg of oil. The beauty of it is that some of the atoms that are necessary for fusion are released during the reaction. So, this means an infinite form of energy in theory.

Whats more, nuclear fusion is a lot safer than nuclear fission. If a reactor breaks down, the reaction process also stops. In addition, far less radioactive waste is released and what is released is only radioactive for 100 years, rather than thousands of years.

Nuclear fusion is exceptionally complex. It is the same process that also turns the sun into a warm ball of light. Simulating this on earth outside a lab and on a commercial scale requires considerable effort. In order to do this, you have to put atoms under extreme pressure and even higher temperatures. They use plasma to do that a very hot gas which is held in place by a magnetic field, Auke explains.

In France, construction has been underway since 2013 on the largest fusion reactor in the world, the ITER. Involved in the project are the EU, China, India, Japan, Russia, South Korea, and the United States. The reactor must be completed by 2025 in order to carry out the first tentative experiments. The project has a price tag of almost 30 billion. Just think about it, this is the first one on such a massive scale. It is extremely expensive and the construction will take more than 20 years. For many of those involved, this is the only time they will ever be involved with something like this. And therefore the only time they can learn anything from it. That got me thinking. How can fusion technology follow in the footsteps of solar cells?

With every doubling of production, solar cells become 20% cheaper. Over the past 50 years, theyve become 100 times cheaper. And if you look at this picture (see below), youll see that their yearly production is skyrocketing and that makes them cheaper. In the beginning, everyone was yelling that solar cells would only be suitable for space travel, but take a look now! These developments are exponential. This is because we can make solar cells relatively quickly and in small quantities. And with every new incarnation, a new generation emerges where faults from the previous series are fixed. In turn, everyone is able to build on the knowledge that has been gained, so developments gain rapid momentum.

In Aukes view, we underestimate the impact of exponential growth. In order to illustrate how fast this happens, he recounts the story of Sissa, a mythical Indian figure who invented the game of chess. The king asked how he could reward him for this invention. Simple, I want one grain of rice multiplied by itself again and again for each square on the chessboard. A simple reward indeed, the king thought. But he wasnt a very good mathematician. 1 became 2, to 4, 8, 16, 32, and so on. It soon became apparent that the king didnt have enough grains of rice to pay the reward.

When I was designing my house, I did it all digitally. I was able to virtually walk through my house with a pair of VR glasses. I could adjust things in detail and see what the effect was. An architect used to make artistic sketches, which were translated by a technical draftsman who would measure it all out to check if it was accurate. A contractor translated these sketches into work instructions for the builders. Mistakes are easily made with so many translations. Now you see more and more models wherein all the parties involved work on the same file. The changes made by one party directly affect the work of the other. As a result, fewer mistakes are made and construction is a lot speedier.

You can use that principle for nuclear fusion too. Now I do realize that this kind of reactor is way more complicated than my house. But if such a digital reactor is highly detailed and you can test and modify everything in VR, you can also use it to speed up the development of this technology. Instead of spending 20 years and 20 billion, you could perhaps do that for a billion euros in just one year.

Science tends to narrow things down a lot; let a scientist explore a subject for ten years and you end up with highly in-depth knowledge of a small piece of the puzzle.

I am not saying anything about how such a reactor would work and what kind of advanced mathematics is behind it because then I wouldnt know what Im talking about. But what I do see is which models you need to connect all the separate pieces of the puzzle to each other. And that isnt happening enough.

Once more, Auke stresses that this type of digital nuclear reactor is a thousand times more complex than my house: Modulating the plasma is very delicate, you have to encapsulate the magnetic field with great precision. These are the dark threads that encircle the blue tubing. There are thousands of variations and before you have found the right proportions you are several years further down the road. But if you put all these possibilities into a computational model, the computer calculates the best ratios much faster.

Then you are still not there by a long shot, Auke goes on. Engineers then get to work on these advanced mathematics: They update the mathematical model. They look for materials that can withstand extreme heat. That translation brings abstract mathematics closer to reality. Then they add the next level where they look at how this type of nuclear power station should be built. Which components do we need in order to run a lot of power safely through certain materials? You expand this further and further until you have even created the underlying software that keeps such a power plant up and running and ultimately connects all the pieces of the puzzle together.

Anyone with a good idea can copy the file and work on it. Thats the great thing about it. Thats when youll notice that it will go a lot faster all of a sudden. Parts become smaller and more effective. And instead of spending 20 billion, it costs just 10 billion and the power plant generates twice as much energy. You can also tweak the model again if it turns out that actual practice is slightly different than expected. This in turn yields more knowledge and the next physical version will be improved and cheaper. In no time at all you can supply an entire province with energy and the development will only cost a mere 100 million. I can totally see it!

See the article here:

'Nuclear fusion can follow in the footsteps of solar cells' - Innovation Origins

If you're like most people, you've dreamed of flying (studies show that more than half of us have done it). If you're curious about the universe, you've probably also dreamed about visiting other planets. And if you're willing to wait about nine months, you are in luck because after that, you won't have to dream anymore.

Ladies and gentlemen, NASA is about to go flying on Mars.

The Perseverance rover, scheduled to land on February 18, 2021, is carrying a grapefruit-sized helicopter named Ingenuity strapped to its belly. Assuming all goes well with the touchdown, Perseverance will settle into its new home for about two months. Then it will release a small debris shield, fire a pyrotechnic cable-cutter, unleash a spring-loaded arm and set the little Ingenuity flyer free.

After the rover has rolled a safe distance away, Ingenuity will soak up sunlight to charge its six lithium-ion batteries, like a newly emerged butterfly drying its wings. Then it will spin its twin rotors up to 2,400 rpm and begin a series of exploratory flights on Mars. That ultra-high rotor speed, necessary to generate lift in the thin air of Mars, means each of Ingenuity's flights won't last long (officially just 90 seconds) nor will it go very far (1,000 meters maximum). Still it's the principle of the thing. The first flight of the Wright Brothers covered just 37 meters.

Ingenuity will establish an equally impressive precedent: the first powered flight on a world beyond Earth. It will surely not be the last.

Science and science fiction visionaries have been sketching out ideas for flying on Mars for decades, even before the existence of NASA and space rocketry. The 1918 film A Trip to Mars, one of the earliest science-fiction movies, depicted a giant, buglike Martian airship. NASA's favorite ex-Nazi, Wernher von Braun, wrote a book-length outline for a human expedition to Mars, which prominently included air travel on the Red Planet; space artist Chesley Bonestell gave visual life to his ideas in his 1953 painting, Exploring Mars. No wonder, then, that NASA engineers are already mulling ideas about how to "add another dimension to the way we explore worlds in the future."

"Exploring Mars" by Chesley Bonestell, based on ideas drawn up by Wernher von Braun. (Credit: Chesley Bonestell)

Actually, it's much more than just ideas. NASA already has another off-world flyer approved and under development one that is even more audacious than the Ingenuity helicopter. In April of 2026, the agency is scheduled to launch Dragonfly, a nuclear powered octocopter (yes, eight rotors), on an eight-year journey to Saturn's giant haze-shrouded moon, Titan. After touching down on Titan's Shangri-La dune fields, Dragonfly will set off on a daring set of long-distance excursions, essentially carrying out a whole new mission each time it lands.

Dragonfly's capabilities will utterly eclipse those of Ingenuity. Titan has lower gravity than Mars, and its atmosphere is 200 times thicker, making flight far easier there. Also, Dragonfly will carry its own radiothermal energy source, so it won't have to rely on trickles of electricity from a small solar panel. The net result is that NASA expects its Titan 'copter will end up traveling a total of about 175 kilometers over the course of a nearly three-year campaign and judging from past NASA efforts, those numbers are probably highly conservative underestimates.

Dragonfly as it will appear after landing on Titan in 2034. The 450-kilogram flyer will sample the surface through its feet each time it touches down. (Credit: NASA/JHU-APL)

Titan is a fascinating target for this kind of exploration. It is a huge world, nearly as large as the planet Mercury, covered in cold organic compounds. Methane and ethane fall as rain, flow in rivers, and collect in lakes a hydrological cycle composed of liquid natural gas instead of water. Titan's dunes are probably composed of tar-like compounds, blowing over a bedrock of deeply frozen water ice. The exotic carbon chemistry happening on Titan today may resemble the reactions that occurred on Earth before life appeared 4 billion years ago. We want to see as much as we can of this unique place.

For now, there are no other flying missions planned for other worlds. But flying is not the only novel form of space transit in development. On small objects like comets and asteroids, hopping is an efficient way to get around. Really, it's almost the only way to get around, since the surface gravity is so low.

The European Space Agency's Philae lander did an accidental hop on Comet 67P after failing to harpoon itself to the surface. The Japanese Space Agency's Hayabusa-2 spacecraft dropped three active hoppers onto the asteroid Ryugu. (I wrote a separate account of their amazing journey.) The Hayabusa-2 probe did its own kiss-and-bounce rendezvous with the asteroid to collect samples. NASA's OSIRIS-REx is about to do a similar maneuver with the asteroid Bennu; Japan's Martain Moons Exploration (MMX) probe will perform yet another kiss-and-bounce on the Martian moon Phobos around 2025.

More sophisticated forms of space-hopping may be coming soon. Phil Metzger at the University of Central Florida is testing a robot called WINE that would visit a comet or asteroid, extract water from its surface, and use it to execute a series of steam-powered jumps. NASA recently funded the development of a similar concept called SPARROW, which could hop across the icy surface of Jupiter's moon Europa.

There could be a future for ballooning on other worlds as well. The Soviets have already pioneered this type of transit with the Vega balloon probe, which was deployed in the upper atmosphere of Venus in 1985. If NASA approves a new Venus explorer as I fervently hope it will a new-generation balloon experiment could be floating around the planet in the coming decade.

Any why stop there? I mentioned earlier that Titan has lakes, which would be prime locations for a future space boat or space submarine. NASA seriously considered a proposal for a Titan boat (the TiME mission) but passed it over in favor of the Mars InSight lander. Still, the concept could easily make a comeback. There are also concepts on the drawing board for Titan submarine and a tunneling machine on Europa.

There's even an experiment underway that could make it possible to navigate the oceans of Europa, if that tunneling machine can manage to break through the ice. If you dream of swimming like a fish, this would be the mission for you. Beneath its icy crust, Europa has more water than all of Earth's oceans combined. There may be volcanic vents below, warming and fertilizing the ocean. Many astrobiologists now consider Europa the most likely place to find life elsewhere in the solar system.

Flying on Mars is a breeze compared to traveling to Europa, breaking through 10 kilometers of ice, and exploring the pitch-black ocean below. But if we can master that tremendous challenge... damn, what we find could be well worth the perils of getting there.

For more science news, follow me on Twitter: @coreyspowell

Visit link:

Hovering, Flying and Hopping Across the Solar System - Discover Magazine