The scary ghost of Ayn Rand looms over the Trump cabinet

Ayn Rand was a terrible person who wove a philosophy of selfishness and greed out of the threads of her own psychopathy. Rands writings and speeches should be recognized as rantings suited for an audience of a well-trained therapist, instead of inflicted upon millions of English students.

Rand, whodeclared altruism a national disease, wroteadmiringlyof child-murderer William Edward Hickmans callous indifference toward others and his immense, explicit egotism. Her contempt for the poor and middle-class are pronounced byanti-Robin Hoods who brag about stealing from the thieving poor to give to the productive rich. Rand defended Native American genocide and murderous white supremacy, once stating any white person who [brought] the elements of civilization had the right to take over this continent. Objectivism, Rands refutation of basic human decency in favor of pathological self-interest and ruthless capitalism, was correctly identified as perfect in its immorality by Gore Vidal more than half a century ago. Today its the prevailing ethos of the GOP, embraced by Republicans going back to Ronald Reaganand especially beloved among the incoming Trump administration.

As James Hohmann of the Washington Post notes, Trump pledged his affection to Rand in an interview earlier this year with Kirsten Powers. Trump, who proudly admits he doesnt readneither books nor intelligence briefings that might slow his roll toward starting a nuclear wartold Powers he relates to Howard Roark, the architect protagonist ofThe Fountainhead. Roark espouses the warped belief that selfishness is a virtue (Mans first duty is to himself) and commits a violentsexual assault. Without specifics, its hard to know precisely where Trump thinks the resemblance begins and ends.

Trump shares an affinity for Rand with several other members of his cabinetthough thats not the worst thing you can say about them, considering the group is a motley assortment of Islamophobes, white supremacists, alleged wifebeaters, and anti-worker .1 percenters.

Hohmann writes that Trumps labor secretary pick Andy Puzder is the CEO of CKE Restaurants, which is owned by Roark Capital Group, a private equity fund named after Howard Roark. When the New York Times asked for a few personal insights about Puzder from one of his business cohorts, the fast-food titan was described only as an avid reader who love[s] Ayn Rand. Puzder recently told the Wall Street Journals Jennifer Grossman that hes advised all six of his kids to read The Fountainhead, in the hope theyll lead the kind of lives of achievement, integrity and independence that Ayn Rand celebrated in her novels.

Trumps choice for secretary of state, Rex Tillerson, whos as famous for being the CEO of ExxonMobil as for hiscozinesswithVladimir Putin, is also a Rand adherent. Hohmann discovered the oil baron listed [Atlas Shrugged] as his favorite book in a 2008 feature for Scouting Magazine. Trumps choice to head the CIA, Mike Pompeo, previously indicated to theWashington Post that many of his political views are the result of a long interest in libertarian and conservative thought, first formed at age 15 when he read Ayn Rands novel The Fountainhead. John A. Allison IV, the former CEO of BB&T Bank and Cato Institute who had a closed-door meeting with Trump late last month, reportedly gave his executive staffers copies of Atlas Shrugged, calling it the best defense of capitalism ever written. Paul Ryan and Donald Trump have had some friction, but maybe now they can now bond over their mutual love of Rand and the beliefthat money is the creation of the best power within you. After years of saying Rand inspired his whole career, Ryan has more recentlyclaimedhe no subscribes to objectivist philosophy. His policy proposals beg to differ.

The fact that all of these men, so late in life, are such fans of works that celebrate individuals who consistently put themselves before others is therefore deeply revealing, Hohmann writes. They will now run our government.

Ayn Rand finally hit a wall through which her delusions could no longer pass; by the time of her death in 1982, she was enrolled in both Medicare and Social Security. After a lifetime of pushing a fever-dreamed philosophy, she was forced to reconcile with reality by old age, illness, and the boundaries of her own personal wealth. The GOP was all too happy to pick up the torch. Trumps team of millionaires and billionaires, bonded by a philosophy of cruelty, are now running with it.

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The scary ghost of Ayn Rand looms over the Trump cabinet

Private Islands – AWE – awetv.com

Episode 1

Did you know that there are 12 thousand private islands in the world? On this episode of Private Islands we're showing you how to find your own secluded paradise.

Escape from the pressures of everyday life with Private Islands. On this episode were showing you how your front yard can be miles of palm trees and glittering coastline.

Join us as we explore the most magical and luxurious private resort island in the world. Owned by famed illusionist David Copperfield, Musha Cay provides a memorable one-of-a-kind experience like nowhere else on earth.

We're traveling 1,000 miles away from anywhere in search of the perfect private island. Forget about the jet lag because when you land in paradise, your dream becomes reality. It's first-class service on the private island of Desroches.

The Bahamas has grown into private island real estates most in-demand market. Escape to the most exotic and remote islands a multi-millionaire buyer, celebrity, or luxury-seeking tourist can find on this episode of Private Islands!

There's nothing like it in the Caribbean, or even in the world! The result of seven years of construction, Emerald Cay in Turks and Caicos combines pristine natural beauty with state-of-the-art luxury to provide the ultimate private island paradise.

Come see how the affluent are rediscovering themselves in the private island of Turks and Caicos. Immerse yourself in sunshine, sea and surf, just 500 miles off the coast of Florida. Life's short, but your quality time doesn't have to be!

Join host Christina Cindrich as she takes you on a magical journey through the private island of French Polynesia. Discover heaven on earth in your own utopian paradise full of beauty, adventure and above all, sheer escapism.

Tales of pirates, betrayal and hidden treasure all share a part of this island's past. There are some places on earth that simply must be experienced to fully understand and Peter Island in the British Virgin Islands is one of those places.

Roatan is one of the best kept secrets of the Caribbean. We take viewers on an underwater adventure and show the most luxurious private islands Honduras has to offer.

From Miami to colorful Key West, the Florida Keys have become one of the America's favorite tropical escapes. Join host Christina Cindrich as she takes you to some of the most secluded private islands for an experience that cannot be beat.

Join host Christina Cindrich in a country that combines both adventure and luxury into one complete island experience. With one foot planted in the mysterious jungles and the other dipped in the Caribbean Sea, Belize will awaken all of your senses.

Located off the coast of "The Spice Isle" Granada in the Caribbean is one of the most luxurious private islands you'll ever see. Calivigny Island is truly the ultimate escape for the affluent traveler in search of their own slice of paradise.

Youll live as few have lived before in a place where the finest luxuries co-exist in absolute harmony with nature. This is Little Bokeelia Island, a private island paradise that could be yours!

Join host Christina Cindrich as she takes you to one of the worlds most exotic destinations, Fiji! Noted for its magical landscape, stunning beaches, and friendly people, these islands are a spectacular taste of heaven right here on Earth.

Join host Christina Cindrich in the postcard perfect island nation of Fiji. With its white sandy beaches, fascinating culture and magical underwater world, this is an unforgettable Private Island experience that youll never want to be rescued from!

Join host Christina Cindrich on a 300-acre private island paradise off the coast of Antigua. With its gorgeous villas and multi-million dollar estates, Jumby Bay's beauty will cast an unforgettable spell of serene enchantment.

Join host Christina Cindrich for an unforgettable experience on two Four Seasons luxury island resorts in the Maldives. Your postcard perfect paradise will come to life right before your eyes in a destination that will surely take your breath away.

Experience the romance of the South Pacific, the laid-back beauty of the Caribbean, the adventure of Central America and the exotic splendor of Asia. Host Christina Cindrich takes you to her top 10 most incredible private islands in the world.

Perhaps nowhere else in Thailand can you enjoy the combination of sun, beach and nightlife quite like in Phuket. Thailand's largest and most popular island seduces its visitors with a vibrant mix of nighttime entertainment and beach culture.

Isla Simca is a jungle hideaway where natural beauty, art, adventure and architecture fuse into a one-of-a-kind retreat. Join host Christina Cindrich on this Panamanian island that until now has been hidden away from the world's prying eyes!

The Grenadines, an island chain deep in the Caribbean. The name alone elicit visions of exotic and peaceful scenery. St. Vincent being the largest, but away from the hustle and traffic, become mesmerized by the beauty of these castaway islands.

The name Laucala is whispered in all the best circles partly because only the best know how to pronounce it. Owned by the co-founder of Red Bull, this Fijian paradise is one of the worlds top island resorts and once there its easy to see why.

Conjuring up postcard-perfect images of South Pacific indulgence and breathtaking scenery, Bora Bora is a haven of exclusive luxury in French Polynesia. Join host Christina Cindrich in this exclusive Private Islands episode you wont want to miss!

Join host Christina Cindrich in a destination known as the real Africa. With its private river islands and abundance of wildlife, Zambia gives an authentic feeling of a wilderness that is wild, beautiful, and slightly unpredictable.

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Private Islands - AWE - awetv.com

Nootrobox – Official Site

The human system can be quantified, manipulated, and optimized. The human drive to self-improve is timeless, but modern technologies now allow us to enhance in precise and measurable ways like never before.

As a group of biohackers, technologists, and researchers, we believe life should be lived to its fullest potential. That potential is tested and ultimately judged by the work we produce. Weve realized that the world around us is made by people no smarter than you or me, and we too can make a dent in the world with what we can create.

When it comes to our offerings, we take the same mentality. Nootrobox researches, develops, and manufactures nootropics with state of the art manufacturing techniques and 100% FDA generally regarded as safe (GRAS) components. This guarantees nootropics that are effective, precise, and safe.

Were driving some of the latest research with top academic collaborators in the world to better understand human cognition and biohacking. This expertise and data is used to constantly evolve and improve our offerings. Thus, our products and formulations are at the forefront of the latest science and research.

Our goal is to make nootropics for everyone. A smarter society is a better society, so lets build and live in that future together.

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Nootrobox - Official Site

New Depression Treatment – Safe & Effective | Nashville TMS

Our goal is to reduce as much stress as we can prior to starting treatment. Weve helped individuals find out about all relevant policy coverage details. Then work to help everyone involved understand all applicable policy limitations, patient responsibilities and payment terms. Then we proceed to operate within the agreed terms.

Many times, our patients questions involve the Affordable Care Act, the health insurance marketplace, private policy insurance, coverages, Medicare and Medicaid. And when we are not at work, just out and about in conversation, we get these questions from friends and acquaintances.

Many people need answers in this new age of health care coverage. So we assembled these answers; presented by the experts at Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and MentalHealth.gov.

We offer the Q&As below to help people find these valuable and much needed resources. If this information assists even a few individuals to obtain coverage for mental health services, then we will be quite happy. Best wishes to you!

Because of the law, most health plans must now coverpreventive services, like depression screening for adults and behavioral assessments for children, at no additional cost. And, as of 2014, most plans cannot deny you coverage or charge you more due to pre-existing health conditions, including mental illnesses.

If you have questions about your insurance plan, we recommend you first look at your plans enrollment materials, or any other information you have on the plan, to see what the coverage levels are for all benefits. Because of the Affordable Care Act, health insurers are required to provide you with aneasy-to-understand summaryabout your benefits including mental health benefits, which should make it easier to see what your coverage is. More information also may be available with your stateConsumer Assistance Program (CAP).

Pathways for Covering Mental Health and Substance Use Disorder Services (Dated 22-9-15)

For additional information on Medicaid and mental health and substance use disorder services, visit:http://www.medicaid.gov/Medicaid-CHIP-Program-Information/By-Topics/Benefits/Mental-Health-Services.html

Medicare Part A (Hospital Insurance)covers inpatient mental health care services you get in a hospital. Part A covers your room, meals, nursing care, and other related services and supplies.

Medicare Part B (Medical Insurance)helps cover mental health services that you would generally get outside of a hospital, including visits with a psychiatrist or other doctor, visits with a clinical psychologist or clinical social worker, and lab tests ordered by your doctor.

Medicare Part D (Prescription Drug )helps cover drugs you may need to treat a mental health condition. Each Part D plan has its own list of covered drugs, known as formulary. Learn more about whichplans cover various drugs.

If you get your Medicare benefits through a Medicare Advantage Plan (like an HMO or PPO) or other Medicare health plan, check your plans membership materials or call the plan for details about how to get your mental health benefits.

If you get your Medicare benefits through traditional Medicare (not a Medicare Advantage plan) and want more information, visitMedicare & Your Mental Health Benefits. To see if a particular test, item or service is covered, please visit theMedicare Coverage Database.

About Nashville TMS: In April of 2010, Dr. Scott West brought the technology of NeuroStar TMS to Nashville, becoming the first physician in Tennessee to offer the option of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation for patients whose severe Major Depressive Disorder has not responded to multiple courses of antidepressant medications and/or other depression treatments. Dr. West and the Nashville TMS Team has successfully treated over 500 patients from Tennessee, Kentucky, Colorado, California, Missouri, New York, Florida, and Alabama. Hear what Nashville TMS patients have to say about their depression treatment experiences and outcomes!

Written by: Lisa Chapman

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New Depression Treatment - Safe & Effective | Nashville TMS

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Make Money from Images, Documents and Photos Uploading

As the popularity of work from home jobs is increasing, there are new ways of making money online are created. Some of these jobs needs technical knowledge in a particular area, but there are some ways through which you can easily earn money online without being an expert in any area. One of these simple ways of making money online is uploading of documents, images, photos and other files. All you need to make money uploading files is a fast and reliable internet connection at your home. There are no rules of uploading files, you just have the ability to upload files on the internet. Today, almost everyone is using the internet, and they have to upload and download files during their daily internet using. Just take the example of Facebook, didnt you ever upload a picture or video there? Make money uploading files is as easy as you are uploading any file on Facebook

Now you know how to upload files makes money online, and you must have idea that how easy job this is. You can upload files within just a few clicks of your mouse. This is a type of home based job which is not very popular, and people are normally not aware about upload files make money work. The reason behind writing this articles is increase the awareness among the online workers and general public about get paid to upload files. There are a number of sites where you can get access to upload and download files. Few of the popular sites are Rapidshare, and Megaupload. On these sites you are able to download as many as you want at a very reasonable price.

Often people thinks they do not have types of file which they can upload, if you are also thinking on the lines that files in your computer are not as good as someone will pay for you, you have to reconsider your thinking as you can get paid to upload files on your PC. For example you can upload songs in your PC, popular games, images, attractive wall papers, and software programs that are in demand

It is very easy to make money through uploading files. Once you have uploaded the files, the host website will advertise your file, and the target audiences will buy these files. You will be paid through the host website. Keep in mind that always upload files that are free from viruses as in that way you can make a lot of money. The amount of your earnings depends on the number of downloads of your uploaded files. You can make a good monthly income on a regular basis by just uploading the files already available in your computer. You can earn regular income by just doing little effort, and all you need is a PC as well as a fast internet.

Earning Money Online at Mylot.com

How to Earn Money from Surfing Websites

How to Find Legitimate Work at Home Jobs

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Make Money from Images, Documents and Photos Uploading

American Pie (Comparison: R-Rated – Movie-Censorship.com

This comparison is between the Rated-R-Version and the Unrated Version. 11 different scenes make the Unrated Version 10,5s longer.

12:08 The R-Rated Version only shows Vickys smiling face as Kevin ejaculates into the cup. In the Unrated Version she is shown straightening her top while Kevin is in the background ejaculating into the cup.

Unrated 1 frame longer

Jim and the apple pie

31:08 While Jims father is still going to the front door, we see Jim and the apple pie. In the Unrated Version he is lying on top of it, in the Rated Version he is standing there with the apple pie, leaning on the counter.

Unrated 1 frame longer

31:12 Different shots show Jims father entering the room through the door: in the Unrated Version he sees Jim on the table, in the Rated Version on the right hand side at the counter. Then alternately Dad and Jim with the apple pie are shown.

Unrated 2 frames longer

Sex Bible

31:38 In two different sequences of scenes Kevin is shown thumbing through the Sex Bible. In the Unrated Version he first learns that his enemy is the Vibrator; then he sees some drawings of sex positions. In the R-Rated Version the vibrator is shown first, too (different shot), but then briefly Kevin and finally a drawing of the "healing Love".

No time difference

Vickys Orgasm

34:51 In two different shots Kevin checks the "Tongue Tornado".

Unrated 0,5s longer

34:54 After Kevin was shown grinning a full frame longer in the Rated-R-Version, alternative shots show Vickys orgasm.

Unrated 2,5s longer

Nadja in Jims room

44:05 The Unrated Version includes an additional shot where we see on the monitor that Nadja has put one hand unter her slip; which is followed by a close-up.

4,5s

Now the Unrated Version shows for 2 seconds a shot of the 3 guys which comes briefly later in the Rated-R-Version, together with the second part of the shot.

44:05 Again, Nadja can be seen on the monitor with her hand under her slip. 2s

44:05 In exchange the R-Rated Version now shows a close-up of Nadja. A different one than the above-mentioned shot. 1,5s

44:12 Alternative shot of the monitor: in the Unrated Version Nadja has her hand under her slip, in the R-Rated Version she hasnt. Unrated 2s longer

44:21 dito. No time difference

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American Pie (Comparison: R-Rated - Movie-Censorship.com

Pantheism – RationalWiki

Pantheism is the religious belief that God is not merely omnipresent, but that God is the universe.

Proponents of pantheism may point to the fact that, if you define God as something that could create the universe and create and nurture life, then you do not need to leave the natural realm to find something that fits the description perfectly; the universe itself does so.

What pantheism means is often open to interpretation, but many versions call on God as the consciousness of all that is. A literal interpretation doesn't stray very far from conventional theology; indeed it builds upon the established God figure present in the Abrahamic religions. In this idea, a person's own individual consciousness is merely a part of the greater whole, the whole that is God himself, who may still possess personable characteristics and may still interefere with life, such as with miracles. St. Paul flirted with this idea of God when St. Luke recorded him saying (in Acts17:28) "For in him we live, and move, and have our being..."

Pantheism has had a great deal of influence on neopaganism, even if most neopagans couldn't name a single pantheist.

Quite a few cosmologists and physicists generally lean towards the concept of pantheism, such as Stephen Hawking (we presume, as the cheeky git doesn't really clarify), Carl Sagan, and Albert Einstein (unlike Hawking, his quotes and writing are quite explicit that he does not "believe in a personal god," while he also made clear he wasn't a straight-up atheist). In the impersonal form, pantheism is taken as meaning that the universe itself fits the description of what God should be perfectly, so rather than inventing a character, it is best to refer to the universe as God. This belief distances itself from the world of dogmatic religion, but allows pantheists to use the vivid language of spirituality to express experiences of wonder, awe, and connectedness[wp] in the face of Nature. Baruch Spinoza refined the idea of pantheism in the late 1600's, and some later pantheists, such as Einstein, would credit Spinoza as being influential in the forming of their worldview. In this sense, pantheism is synonymous with the term "Spinoza's God."

Unfortunately, because many respected scientists call the universe "God" in a pantheistic sense, their statements are the unwitting target of creationist or fundamentalist quote mining. In particular, this is for use in appeals to authority, whereby the pantheistic "God" the scientist refers to is conflated with the Abrahamic God of the Bible. In reality, the pantheistic "God" usually has little to do with the Bible or any specific religion, even if the belief is that the pantheistic God is also personable, such as what is hinted at in Hawking's writings. This quote mining is especially true of Einstein due to his almost universal respect, and sometimes Hawking and his famous closing line of A Brief History of Time: "for then we should know the mind of God."

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Pantheism - RationalWiki

02002-02052 (50 years): Moore’s Law, which has defined a …

Moore's Law, Gordon Moore's visionary prediction of continued exponential growth in semi-conductor performance, has provided the engine for innovation and the constantly increasing (and accelerating) power and resources at continually decreasing costs provided by techhnology.

Moore admits that Moore's Law has turned out to be more accurate, longer lasting and deeper in impact than he ever imagined. In fact, it has been Intel engineers, frustrated by an inability to see clearly more than 8 to 10 years into the future of their own technology, who have been the most conservative in estimating the lifespan of Moore's Law and partyly because they have been the most conservative in defining Moore's Law. They continue to focus on increasing the transistor count on silicon as the main driver of Moore's Law and thus announce that Moore's Law may slow or even stop by the end of the next decade, as transisters approach sub-atomic sizes.

Moore's Law, however, was never a physical law. It began as an observation, that became a prediction, that has now been dismissed as a "self-fulfilling prophecy".

However you choose to describe it, Moore's Law has always functioned as a expression of breathtaking (almost rash) optimism and as a pacesetting mechanism informed by scientific observation, commercial competitiveness and human ingenuity that we can and should have the ability to improve our power to provide capability and opportunity for humankind, continually and exponentially thus continuing to provide better, more efficient and less costly technologies.

This continued (and in fact unstoppabl) flow of increased performance, power and new value has transformed vast

The world has broadened its definition of Moore's Law as our understanding of physics, materials and complexity deepens and becomes more intimate. Recently Intel suggested that an "Expanded Moore's Law" is no longer driven solely by transitor count but by the combination of three factors. The first is the traditional increasing the count of components we can put on a chip. The second is increasing the complexity of components we can put on a chip. The third is increasing the convergence of technologies we implement on a chip.

Intel and its competitors continue to leverage and balance these factors as needed to continue producing the by-now-expected-and-required doubling of performance every new generation of technology.

(Those who go back and read Moore's original article that appeared in the April, 1965 issue of Electronics magazine will notice that Moore always used the word components, and even today tends to talk about increasing the complexity of components, rather than focusing solely on the number of transistors on a chip.)

At a certain point, you can choose to define a chip as a network all on its own, and as such subject to Metcalfe's Law. Metcalfe's Law may in fact prove to be one of the most important enablers of the continued growth of semi-conductor performance. (I use the term M (squared), Moore times Metcalfe, to represent this additional factor.)

Many scientists, including those who attended a recent science summit at DARPA, believe the exponential increase in benefits defined by Moore's Law will neither cease nor slow in the foreseeable future.

The source of those benefits may alter, but the value of Moore's Law has now as Moore originally hoped when he first made his famous observation begun an unstoppable expansion beyond traditional computational spaces that will eventually assure new capabilities, as well as increased performance, lower cost, and greater connectivity for vitually every traditional device and services eventually universal availability of transformatory improvements.

It is Moore's Law (arguably in combination with Metcalfe's Law) which is helping us invent and extend our future. We need it to keep going. And for the reasons described above, I believe it will -- certainly for the next five decades. This is the basis and the passion behind my bet.

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02002-02052 (50 years): Moore's Law, which has defined a ...

Cosmotown.com – Lowest Cost Domain Names Ownership

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The domain pricing is awesome, and the customer care is the best I have seen in 15 years! I am a customer for life!!! THANK YOU Cosmotown, for letting me focus on my music... you ROCK!

* If you find a lower regular price within 12 months of registering your domain with Cosmotown, we will refund you double the difference in price. Only other registrars' regular pricing applies, promotional pricing, coupon pricing, limited time offers etc are excluded. Whois Privacy is free for as long as your domain is registered with Cosmotown, on domains extensions that allow Whois Privacy. Certain domain extensions do not allow Whois Privacy due to registry restrictions, such as country code TLDs (.cc, .asia etc). All quoted prices are based on regular prices as of 1/1/2014 for a one-year registration of a single domain. Product and program specifications, availability, and pricing are subject to change without notice. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.

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Cosmotown.com - Lowest Cost Domain Names Ownership

Hetalia: The World Twinkle | Anime-Planet

Catch up with the nations in this latest season where we have more silly shenanigans. Germany and Italy are going on and on aboutcanned food? Ugh, are you sure that's safe to eat?! In between the fun, we have something super special! Watch little America in a totally adorable flashback that is going to make your heart swell. Sh-Shut up, I'm not crying, you're crying!And don't forget to check in on the Nordic nations and see what's going on with all those blondes. Wait Estonia, what are you doing there? And there's even more adventure to be had when we go on a hunt for more micronations. Yay! Who will join Sealand in his journey to bring attention to the micros?But make sure you don't miss out on the four extra special OVAs, including a Halloween special. Oh my gosh, everyone looks so cute in their costumes! Look at America dressed as and oh, look at you, England! Squee!!Hetalia is back and bringing the full twinkle!

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Hetalia: The World Twinkle | Anime-Planet

Nootropics from Nature – niume.com

Reach an instant audience, monetize your posts, and get our guide to become a Pro-Blogger

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First Amendment Rights – Bill of Rights Institute

Download a PDF of the Bill of Rights

The first 10 amendments to the Constitution make up the Bill of Rights. Written by James Madison in response to calls from several states for greater constitutional protection for individual liberties, the Bill of Rights lists specific prohibitions on governmental power. The Virginia Declaration of Rights, written by George Mason, strongly influenced Madison.

One of the many points of contention between Federalists and Anti-Federalists was the Constitutions lack of a bill of rights that would place specific limits on government power. Federalists argued that the Constitution did not need a bill of rights, because the people and the states kept any powers not given to the federal government. Anti-Federalists held that a bill of rights was necessary to safeguard individual liberty.

Madison, then a member of the U.S. House of Representatives, went through the Constitution itself, making changes where he thought most appropriate. But several Representatives, led by Roger Sherman, objected that Congress had no authority to change the wording of the Constitution itself. Therefore, Madisons changes were presented as a list of amendments that would follow Article VII.

The House approved 17 amendments. Of these 17, the Senate approved 12. Those 12 were sent to the states for approval in August of 1789. Of those 12, 10 were quickly approved (or, ratified). Virginias legislature became the last to ratify the amendments on December 15, 1791.

The Bill of Rights is a list of limits on government power. For example, what the Founders saw as the natural right of individuals to speak and worship freely was protected by the First Amendments prohibitions on Congress from making laws establishing a religion or abridging freedom of speech. For another example, the natural right to be free from unreasonable government intrusion in ones home was safeguarded by the Fourth Amendments warrant requirements.

Other precursors to the Bill of Rights include English documents such as the Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, the English Bill of Rights, and the Massachusetts Body of Liberties.

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.

A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.

No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense.

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.

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First Amendment Rights - Bill of Rights Institute

The Libertarian Party Platform – A Quick Summary

By Tom Head

This is not a specific criticism of the Libertarian Party, mind you; the Democratic and Republican party platforms are much, much more turgid (to the point where they can't be read in one sitting), much more vague (to the point where they often sound as if they're advocating the same policies), and much more abstract (relying on Mom-and-apple-pie patriotic rhetoric instead of concrete policy proposals). But the difference is that the Democratic and Republican parties have enough money to pay people to run campaigns that give us an idea of what the parties stand for.

The Libertarian Party doesn't have that much money, so I'm proud to present the world's shortest platform summary of the party that brought you the World's Shortest Political Quiz.

Fiscal Policy: Very right-libertarian. The Libertarian Party opposes taxation in pretty much all forms, and deals with the revenue loss by opposing entitlement programs in pretty much all forms. This means that people keep more of what they earn, but it also means that there is no social safety net. And ambitious new proposals--such as universal pre-kindergarten and universal health care--are obviously not compatible with this objective.

Corporations: Eliminate all federal subsidies to private corporations, as well as all antitrust laws.

Public Services: Eliminate the Postal Service. Transfer all government services, from public schools to landfills, to private ownership.

Property Rights: Would restrict public domain to immediate public use, and sell or give away most public property to private owners.

Criminal Justice: Would eliminate all antidrug laws and legalize prostitution. Would end random police roadblocks.

Free Speech: Would abolish the FCC and allow private ownership of broadcast frequencies. Opposes all restriction of free speech, including free speech restricted in the name of national security.

Church and State: Calls for reduced IRS regulation and monitoring of tax-exempt churches.

Second Amendment: Strongly opposes all gun control, as well as regulation of alternative weapon technologies (mace, Tasers, and so forth).

The Draft: Calls for the abolition of the Selective Service System and amnesty for any citizen who has ever resisted the draft.

Reproductive Rights: Pro-choice, but opposes all federal funding of abortion and most federal entitlements for women who choose to carry their pregnancies to term, including the child tax credit. Opposes involuntary or fraudulent sterilization.

LGBT Rights: Opposes "don't ask, don't tell." Believes that marriage is a private contract, and should yield no government benefits regardless of the gender of the partners.

Immigrants' Rights: Argues that borders should be open but surveilled--everyone who does not pose a threat to public health or national security should be allowed to enter the country legally. Would eliminate all federal benefits to undocumented immigrants.

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The Libertarian Party Platform - A Quick Summary

Remote Gambling Association (RGA)

The Remote Gambling Association became operational on 1st August 2005 as a result of a merger between the Association of Remote Gambling Operators (ARGO) and the Interactive Gaming, Gambling and Betting Association (IGGBA).

The RGA is the largest online gambling trade association in the world, representing most of the worlds largest licensed and stock market-listed remote gambling operators and software providers . We provide the remote gambling industry with a single voice on all issues of importance to regulators, legislators, and key decision-makers

Remote gambling is now a recognized, well regulated, mainstream leisure activity in which operators have created an enviroment where gambling is fair, safe, honest and fun. The RGAand our members want people to continue to enjoy gambling online as a recreational activity but it is important to remember that the key to staying safe and out of trouble is to "Always Gamble Responsibly"

We produced the following leaflet in association with GamCare to highlight some simple messages to keep in mind when you gamble online.

National Gambling Helpline

For confidential advice and emotional support please call to speak with a trained advisor. Lines are open from 8:00am to midnight, seven days a week.

0808 8020 133

If you are interested in being kept up to date about NOSES and the progress through the project please email noses@rga.eu.com to express your interest in receiving communications. For more background on the history of the project, please click on the logo below:

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Remote Gambling Association (RGA)

MicroWiki – micronations.wiki

From MicroWiki, the micronational encyclopdia

MicroWiki is the largest online encyclopdia about micronations, small and often rather eccentric nations that are unrecognised by the wider international community. The wiki is being continually improved and updated by hundreds of editors, with content being moderated by a small group of staff. Since its creation on 27 May 2005, the site has grown to become one of the largest micronational-related websites with a total of 46,731 pages and 10,049 articles, of which 42 have achieved good article status. However, before you start editing, it is recommended that you take a look at our content disclaimer, basic rules of editing, and the Nation page guide. If you need help, visit our meeting point, the MicroWiki forums.

HIM Emperor Jonathan I is the fourth Emperor of Austenasia and constitutionally-designated Founder of the country. Prime Minister from the Empire of Austenasia's independence in September 2008 to his ascension to the Throne on 20 January 2013, and son of the founding Emperor Terry I, Jonathan I was de jure Heir to the Throne to all three of his predecessors, with the second and third Monarchs becoming Emperors through Acts of Parliament instead of the rules of succession. The reign of Jonathan I has so far been notable for a huge expansion of the Empire, both in terms of size and population. Another notable aspect of his reign so far has been the promulgation of numerous comprehensive pieces of legislation in both criminal and civil law, including the monumental Codex Jonathanus. Jonathan I is also owner and head administrator of MicroWiki. (more...)

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MicroWiki - micronations.wiki

Deluxe Ham Casserole Recipe – Allrecipes.com

Recipe by: Extropian

"This is as good as comfort food gets. My family would have this every night of the week if I let them!"

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I use frozen broccoli in place of the peas and cream of chicken in place of the cream of celery. The leftovers from this casserole rewarm well, if there's any leftover. NOTE: If you don't have h...

Onion, garlic and soup flavors were overpowering. Also, baking in such a shallow dish caused the caserole to be too dry. Will not make again.

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I use frozen broccoli in place of the peas and cream of chicken in place of the cream of celery. The leftovers from this casserole rewarm well, if there's any leftover. NOTE: If you don't have h...

Our family likes ham day one ...day 2 not so much I usually always give most of it away and can pull maybe 1 day of leftovers with it ....was def not in the mood for cooking after cooking for Ea...

I was in a hurry, so I didn't sautee' onions and garlic. I just used the spices. Used skim milk and fat free sour cream and instead of Cheddar, used Colby Jack. This was delicious and I will ...

I can't believe more people haven't tried this recipe - it's awesome! I followed the recipe exactly except I only used 2.8 oz of fried onions and found that to be plenty. I thought the peas wen...

Onion, garlic and soup flavors were overpowering. Also, baking in such a shallow dish caused the caserole to be too dry. Will not make again.

This is a delicious recipe! I substituted Oscar Mayer Carving Board Ham and Funyuns onion rings because that was what I had on hand, it was so easy!

I made this last night, and will definitely make it again. I made a few changes, just because I did not have the ingredients on hand. I used rigatoni instead of macaroni. I missed that I needed ...

Nothing special about this casserole. I would probably make it again to use up leftover ham. I used mixed veggies in stead of peas but other than that I followed the recipe.

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Deluxe Ham Casserole Recipe - Allrecipes.com

The CNN Freedom Project: Ending Modern-Day Slavery

Professor Bernard Freamon teaches courses on modern-day slavery and human trafficking at Seton Hall University School of Law in New Jersey and also specializes in Islamic Legal History. He is currently writing a book, Islam, Slavery and Empire in the Indian Ocean World. The views in this article are his alone.

By Professor Bernard Freamon

In the past few months, the world has witnessed horrific accounts of the enslavement of thousands of innocent Yazidis and other religious minorities by ISIS partisans in Iraq and Syria.

In a recent article in its online English-language magazine, ISIS ideologues offered legal justifications for the enslavement of these non-Muslim non-combatants, stating that enslaving the families of the kuffar [infidels] and taking their women as concubines is a firmly established aspect of the Shariah or Islamic law.

The article argues, based on a variety of Shariah sources, that ISIS partisans have a religious duty to kill or enslave members of the Yazidi community as part of their struggle [jihad] against their enemies.

This argument is plainly wrong, hypocritical and astonishingly ahistorical, relying on male fantasies inspired by stories from the days of imperial Islam.

It is also an affront to right-thinking Muslims everywhere and a criminal perversion of Islamic law, particularly its primary source, the Glorious Quran.

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The CNN Freedom Project: Ending Modern-Day Slavery

EscapeArtist – Live, Work, Travel, Retire & Invest Overseas

EscapeArtist is one of the world's largest and oldest expatriate resources for living, working, traveling, retiring, and investing abroad and overseas. We also have international real estate listings, international jobs, and offshore events and conferences.

Australia has grown to be among the top countries that people move to for work or leisure. Are you living in Australia alone and would like to bring your family

The IRS is investigating all US bitcoin transactions. If youve been conducting business using a U.S. bitcoin account, your transactions are not private. All U.S. based bitcoin accounts are subject

Nicaragua beachfront real estate is an up-and-coming property market, yet undiscovered by the masses. Nicaragua is a land of immense natural beauty and rich culture. One can spend their days

Traveling abroad is one of the best experiences of life it expands your horizons, gives you new perspectives, and it sometimes takes you out of your comfort zone. When

Connie and I have been digital nomads for nearly ten years. In that time we have met hundreds of people all over the world. One of the most common questions

The IRS is investigating all US bitcoin transactions. If youve been conducting business using a U.S. bitcoin account, your transactions are not private. All U.S. based bitcoin accounts are subject

Youve been running your offshore business for awhile and have some accumulated earnings and profits. You want to invest these retained earnings in the United States and prefer they be

The following article is for U.S. citizens and describes the type of income that can be retained offshore in a foreign corporation. It also defines foreign source and U.S. source

According to Oxford Economics, President Donald Trump will either be a disaster or the best thing ever for the global economy. No one knows which the chips will fall, but

Tax year 2016 is coming to a close and its the time to do some year end planning for your offshore corporation. Miss out on the FEIE or transferring money

Whether you are considering moving to China or not, the events within the country will affect you all the same. It is too big of a power not to cause

Australia has grown to be among the top countries that people move to for work or leisure. Are you living in Australia alone and would like to bring your family

Traveling abroad is one of the best experiences of life it expands your horizons, gives you new perspectives, and it sometimes takes you out of your comfort zone. When

When getting married in Thailand, there are two types of weddings. There is the traditional Buddhist religious ceremony and the legal marriage registration. The ceremony is the wedding, however, the

Governments around the world use passports as a weapon against their citizens. Your passport can be taken from you for any reason at any time, locking you, your family, and

Those who have been following my chronicles from the very beginningknow that one of my very first adventures on the amazing Ambergris Caye was taking my beach cruiser bike all

If youre an American and have tried to open an offshore bank account in the last few years, you know how difficult it can be. About 85% of banks are

Chris is a fellow American living and working in New Zealand. He came here between high school and college to try and figure out life. I worked for the hostel

Europe : https://pixabay.com/en/world-europe-map-connections-1264062/ The Old Continent is one of the favorite destinations for people all over the world, especially those who are interested in history, architecture, and good old European-style

The rule against perpetuities in the United States makes it impossible to lock up your assets in a domestic trust beyond the lives of people living at the time the

Living anywhere in Latin America offers a lot of historical opportunity for those interested in exploring the area. When I moved to San Pedro, Belize, on Ambergris Caye, the first

Connie and I have been digital nomads for nearly ten years. In that time we have met hundreds of people all over the world. One of the most common questions

One important aspect of visiting or becoming part of a new community is finding ways to involve yourself and give back to the people, animals, and environment around you. In

Driving a motorbike in a foreign country is as crazy as you would imagine. The rules of the road differ, and many times people make up the rules as they

San Pedro is the small town situated on the southern side of Ambergris Caye island in Belize. This Caribbean destination provides a diverse variety of activities for visitors of all

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EscapeArtist - Live, Work, Travel, Retire & Invest Overseas

Racetam – Wikipedia

Racetams are a class of drugs that share a pyrrolidone nucleus.[1] Some, such as piracetam, are considered nootropics. Some such as oxiracetam and phenylpiracetam are also stimulants. Others such as levetiracetam and seletracetam are anticonvulsants.

There is no universally accepted mechanism of action for racetams. Racetams generally show negligible affinity for common central nervous system receptors, but modulation of central neurotransmitters, including acetylcholine and glutamate, has been reported. Although aniracetam and nebracetam show affinity for muscarinic receptors, only nefiracetam demonstrates nanomolar interactions. Modification of membrane-located mechanisms of central signal transduction is another hypothesis.[2]

Like some ampakines, some racetams such as piracetam and aniracetam are positive allosteric modulators of the AMPA receptor.[3]

Racetams are understood to work by activating glutamate receptors that are colocalized with cholinergic receptors, thus increasing the frequency of activation of the latter.[4] Racetams are posited to enhance memory through interaction with cholinergic and glutamate receptors in the central nervous system.

Methylphenylpiracetam is a positive allosteric modulator of the sigma-1 receptor.[5]

In studies with aged rats, marked improvement has been observed in cognitive tasks in experimental groups given piracetam. Performance was further increased with piracetam combined with cholines. Evidence in studies with rats has indicated that the potency of piracetam is increased when administered with choline.[6]

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Racetam - Wikipedia

Natural selection – Wikipedia

Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype. It is a key mechanism of evolution, the change in heritable traits of a population over time. Charles Darwin popularised the term "natural selection", and compared it with artificial selection.

Variation exists within all populations of organisms. This occurs partly because random mutations arise in the genome of an individual organism, and offspring can inherit such mutations. Throughout the lives of the individuals, their genomes interact with their environments to cause variations in traits. The environment of a genome includes the molecular biology in the cell, other cells, other individuals, populations, species, as well as the abiotic environment. Individuals with certain variants of the trait may survive and reproduce more than individuals with other, less successful, variants. Therefore, the population evolves. Factors that affect reproductive success are also important, an issue that Darwin developed in his ideas on sexual selection (now often included in natural selection) and fecundity selection.

Natural selection acts on the phenotype, or the observable characteristics of an organism, but the genetic (heritable) basis of any phenotype that gives a reproductive advantage may become more common in a population. Over time, this process can result in populations that specialise for particular ecological niches (microevolution) and may eventually result in the emergence of new species (macroevolution). In other words, natural selection is a key process in the evolution of a population. Natural selection can be contrasted with artificial selection, in which humans intentionally choose specific traits, whereas in natural selection there is no intentional choice.

Natural selection is one of the cornerstones of modern biology. The concept, published by Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in a joint presentation of papers in 1858, was elaborated in Darwin's influential 1859 book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, which described natural selection as analogous to artificial selection, a process by which animals and plants with traits considered desirable by human breeders are systematically favoured for reproduction. The concept of natural selection originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of heredity; at the time of Darwin's writing, science had yet to develop modern theories of genetics. The union of traditional Darwinian evolution with subsequent discoveries in classical genetics formed the modern evolutionary synthesis of the mid-20th century. The addition of molecular genetics has led to evolutionary developmental biology, which explains evolution at the molecular level. While genotypes can slowly change by random genetic drift, natural selection remains the primary explanation for adaptive evolution.

Several philosophers of the classical era, including Empedocles[1] and his intellectual successor, the Roman poet Lucretius,[2] expressed the idea that nature produces a huge variety of creatures, randomly, and that only those creatures that manage to provide for themselves and reproduce successfully persist. Empedocles' idea that organisms arose entirely by the incidental workings of causes such as heat and cold was criticised by Aristotle in Book II of Physics.[3] He posited natural teleology in its place, and believed that form was achieved for a purpose, citing the regularity of heredity in species as proof.[4][5] Nevertheless, he accepted in his biology that new types of animals, monstrosities (), can occur in very rare instances (Generation of Animals, Book IV).[6] As quoted in Darwin's 1872 edition of The Origin of Species, Aristotle considered whether different forms (e.g., of teeth) might have appeared accidentally, but only the useful forms survived:

So what hinders the different parts [of the body] from having this merely accidental relation in nature? as the teeth, for example, grow by necessity, the front ones sharp, adapted for dividing, and the grinders flat, and serviceable for masticating the food; since they were not made for the sake of this, but it was the result of accident. And in like manner as to the other parts in which there appears to exist an adaptation to an end. Wheresoever, therefore, all things together (that is all the parts of one whole) happened like as if they were made for the sake of something, these were preserved, having been appropriately constituted by an internal spontaneity, and whatsoever things were not thus constituted, perished, and still perish.

But Aristotle rejected this possibility in the next paragraph, making clear that he is talking about the development of animals as embryos with the phrase "either invariably or normally come about", not the origin of species:

...Yet it is impossible that this should be the true view. For teeth and all other natural things either invariably or normally come about in a given way; but of not one of the results of chance or spontaneity is this true. We do not ascribe to chance or mere coincidence the frequency of rain in winter, but frequent rain in summer we do; nor heat in the dog-days, but only if we have it in winter. If then, it is agreed that things are either the result of coincidence or for an end, and these cannot be the result of coincidence or spontaneity, it follows that they must be for an end; and that such things are all due to nature even the champions of the theory which is before us would agree. Therefore action for an end is present in things which come to be and are by nature.

The struggle for existence was later described by the Islamic writer Al-Jahiz in the 9th century.[9][10]

The classical arguments were reintroduced in the 18th century by Pierre Louis Maupertuis[11] and others, including Darwin's grandfather, Erasmus Darwin.

Until the early 19th century, the prevailing view in Western societies was that differences between individuals of a species were uninteresting departures from their Platonic ideals (or typus) of created kinds. However, the theory of uniformitarianism in geology promoted the idea that simple, weak forces could act continuously over long periods of time to produce radical changes in the Earth's landscape. The success of this theory raised awareness of the vast scale of geological time and made plausible the idea that tiny, virtually imperceptible changes in successive generations could produce consequences on the scale of differences between species.[12]

The early 19th-century zoologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck suggested the inheritance of acquired characteristics as a mechanism for evolutionary change; adaptive traits acquired by an organism during its lifetime could be inherited by that organism's progeny, eventually causing transmutation of species.[13] This theory, Lamarckism, was an influence on the Soviet biologist Trofim Lysenko's antagonism to mainstream genetic theory as late as the mid 20th century.[14]

Between 1835 and 1837, the zoologist Edward Blyth worked on the area of variation, artificial selection, and how a similar process occurs in nature. Darwin acknowledged Blyth's ideas in the first chapter on variation of On the Origin of Species.[15]

In 1859, Charles Darwin set out his theory of evolution by natural selection as an explanation for adaptation and speciation. He defined natural selection as the "principle by which each slight variation [of a trait], if useful, is preserved."[16] The concept was simple but powerful: individuals best adapted to their environments are more likely to survive and reproduce. As long as there is some variation between them and that variation is heritable, there will be an inevitable selection of individuals with the most advantageous variations. If the variations are heritable, then differential reproductive success leads to a progressive evolution of particular populations of a species, and populations that evolve to be sufficiently different eventually become different species.[17][18]

Darwin's ideas were inspired by the observations that he had made on the second voyage of HMS Beagle (18311836), and by the work of a political economist, Thomas Robert Malthus, who, in An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798), noted that population (if unchecked) increases exponentially, whereas the food supply grows only arithmetically; thus, inevitable limitations of resources would have demographic implications, leading to a "struggle for existence."[19] When Darwin read Malthus in 1838 he was already primed by his work as a naturalist to appreciate the "struggle for existence" in nature and it struck him that as population outgrew resources, "favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of new species."[20] Darwin wrote:

If during the long course of ages and under varying conditions of life, organic beings vary at all in the several parts of their organisation, and I think this cannot be disputed; if there be, owing to the high geometrical powers of increase of each species, at some age, season, or year, a severe struggle for life, and this certainly cannot be disputed; then, considering the infinite complexity of the relations of all organic beings to each other and to their conditions of existence, causing an infinite diversity in structure, constitution, and habits, to be advantageous to them, I think it would be a most extraordinary fact if no variation ever had occurred useful to each being's own welfare, in the same way as so many variations have occurred useful to man. But if variations useful to any organic being do occur, assuredly individuals thus characterised will have the best chance of being preserved in the struggle for life; and from the strong principle of inheritance they will tend to produce offspring similarly characterised. This principle of preservation, I have called, for the sake of brevity, Natural Selection.

Once he had his theory, Darwin was meticulous about gathering and refining evidence before making his idea public. He was in the process of writing his "big book" to present his research when the naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace independently conceived of the principle and described it in an essay he sent to Darwin to forward to Charles Lyell. Lyell and Joseph Dalton Hooker decided (without Wallace's knowledge) to present his essay together with unpublished writings that Darwin had sent to fellow naturalists, and On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection was read to the Linnean Society of London announcing co-discovery of the principle in July 1858.[22] Darwin published a detailed account of his evidence and conclusions in On the Origin of Species in 1859. In the 3rd edition of 1861 Darwin acknowledged that otherslike William Charles Wells in 1813, and Patrick Matthew in 1831had proposed similar ideas, but had neither developed them nor presented them in notable scientific publications.[23]

Darwin thought of natural selection by analogy to how farmers select crops or livestock for breeding, which he called "artificial selection"; in his early manuscripts he referred to a "Nature" which would do the selection. At the time, other mechanisms of evolution such as evolution by genetic drift were not yet explicitly formulated, and Darwin believed that selection was likely only part of the story: "I am convinced that Natural Selection has been the main but not exclusive means of modification."[24] In a letter to Charles Lyell in September 1860, Darwin regretted the use of the term "Natural Selection," preferring the term "Natural Preservation."[25]

For Darwin and his contemporaries, natural selection was in essence synonymous with evolution by natural selection. After the publication of On the Origin of Species,[26] educated people generally accepted that evolution had occurred in some form. However, natural selection remained controversial as a mechanism, partly because it was perceived to be too weak to explain the range of observed characteristics of living organisms, and partly because even supporters of evolution balked at its "unguided" and non-progressive nature,[27] a response that has been characterised as the single most significant impediment to the idea's acceptance.[28] However, some thinkers enthusiastically embraced natural selection; after reading Darwin, Herbert Spencer introduced the phrase survival of the fittest, which became a popular summary of the theory.[29][30] The fifth edition of On the Origin of Species published in 1869 included Spencer's phrase as an alternative to natural selection, with credit given: "But the expression often used by Mr. Herbert Spencer of the Survival of the Fittest is more accurate, and is sometimes equally convenient."[31] Although the phrase is still often used by non-biologists, modern biologists avoid it because it is tautological if "fittest" is read to mean "functionally superior" and is applied to individuals rather than considered as an averaged quantity over populations.[32]

Natural selection relies crucially on the idea of heredity, but developed before the basic concepts of genetics. Although the Moravian monk Gregor Mendel, the father of modern genetics, was a contemporary of Darwin's, his work lay in obscurity, only being rediscovered in 1900.[33] Only after the mid-20th century integration of evolution with Mendel's laws of inheritance, the so-called modern evolutionary synthesis, did scientists generally come to accept natural selection.[34][35] The synthesis grew from advances in different fields. Ronald Fisher developed the required mathematical language and wrote The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection (1930).[36]J. B. S. Haldane introduced the concept of the "cost" of natural selection.[37][38]Sewall Wright elucidated the nature of selection and adaptation.[39]Theodosius Dobzhansky established the idea that mutation, by creating genetic diversity, supplied the raw material for natural selection, in his book Genetics and the Origin of Species (1937).[40][41]Ernst Mayr recognised the key importance of reproductive isolation for speciation in his Systematics and the Origin of Species (1942).[42]W. D. Hamilton conceived of kin selection in 1964.[43][44] This synthesis cemented natural selection as the foundation of evolutionary theory, where it remains today. A second synthesis was brought about at the end of the 20th century by molecular genetics, creating the field of evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo), which seeks to explain evolution at a molecular level.[45][46][47]

The term natural selection is most often defined to operate on heritable traits, because these directly participate in evolution. However, natural selection is "blind" in the sense that changes in phenotype can give a reproductive advantage regardless of whether or not the trait is heritable. Following Darwin's primary usage, the term is used to refer both to the evolutionary consequence of blind selection and to its mechanisms.[26][36][48][49] It is sometimes helpful to explicitly distinguish between selection's mechanisms and its effects; when this distinction is important, scientists define "(phenotypic) natural selection" specifically as "those mechanisms that contribute to the selection of individuals that reproduce", without regard to whether the basis of the selection is heritable.[50][51][52] Traits that cause greater reproductive success of an organism are said to be selected for, while those that reduce success are selected against.[53]

Natural variation occurs among the individuals of any population of organisms. Some differences may improve an individual's chances of surviving and reproducing, so that its lifetime reproductive rate is increased: it leaves more offspring. If the traits that give these individuals a reproductive advantage are also heritable, that is, passed from parent to offspring, then there will be differential reproduction, that is, a slightly higher proportion of fast rabbits or efficient algae in the next generation. Even if the reproductive advantage is very slight, over many generations any advantageous heritable trait becomes dominant in the population. In this way the natural environment of an organism "selects for" traits that confer a reproductive advantage, causing evolutionary change, as Darwin described.[54] This gives the appearance of purpose, but in natural selection there is no intentional choice. Artificial selection is purposive where natural selection is not, though biologists often use teleological language to describe it.[55]

The peppered moth exists in both light and dark colours in Great Britain, but during the industrial revolution, many of the trees on which the moths rested became blackened by soot, giving the dark-coloured moths an advantage in hiding from predators. This gave dark-coloured moths a better chance of surviving to produce dark-coloured offspring, and in just fifty years from the first dark moth being caught, nearly all of the moths in industrial Manchester were dark. The balance was reversed by the effect of the Clean Air Act 1956, and the dark moths became rare again, demonstrating the influence of natural selection on peppered moth evolution.[56]

The concept of fitness is central to natural selection. In broad terms, individuals that are more "fit" have better potential for survival, as in the well-known phrase "survival of the fittest", but the precise meaning of the term is much more subtle. Modern evolutionary theory defines fitness not by how long an organism lives, but by how successful it is at reproducing. If an organism lives half as long as others of its species, but has twice as many offspring surviving to adulthood, its genes become more common in the adult population of the next generation. Though natural selection acts on individuals, the effects of chance mean that fitness can only really be defined "on average" for the individuals within a population. The fitness of a particular genotype corresponds to the average effect on all individuals with that genotype.[57]

In biology, competition is an interaction between organisms in which the fitness of one is lowered by the presence of another. This may be because both rely on a limited supply of a resource such as food, water, or territory.[58] Competition may be within or between species, and may be direct or indirect.[59] Species less suited to compete should in theory either adapt or die out, since competition plays a powerful role in natural selection, but according to the "room to roam" theory it may be less important than expansion among larger clades.[59][60]

Competition is modelled by r/K selection theory, which is based on Robert MacArthur and E. O. Wilson's work on island biogeography.[61] In this theory, selective pressures drive evolution in one of two stereotyped directions: r- or K-selection.[62] These terms, r and K, can be illustrated in a logistic model of population dynamics:[63]

where r is the growth rate of the population (N), and K is the carrying capacity of its local environmental setting. Typically, r-selected species exploit empty niches, and produce many offspring, each with a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood. In contrast, K-selected species are strong competitors in crowded niches, and invest more heavily in much fewer offspring, each with a relatively high probability of surviving to adulthood.[63]

Natural selection can act on any heritable phenotypic trait,[64] and selective pressure can be produced by any aspect of the environment, including sexual selection and competition with members of the same or other species.[65][66] However, this does not imply that natural selection is always directional and results in adaptive evolution; natural selection often results in the maintenance of the status quo by eliminating less fit variants.[54]

Selection can be classified in several different ways, such as by its effect on a trait, on genetic diversity, by the life cycle stage where it acts, by the unit of selection, or by the resource being competed for.

Selection has different effects on traits. Stabilizing selection acts to hold a trait at a stable optimum, and in the simplest case all deviations from this optimum are selectively disadvantageous. Directional selection favours extreme values of a trait. The uncommon disruptive selection also acts during transition periods when the current mode is sub-optimal, but alters the trait in more than one direction. In particular, if the trait is quantitative and univariate then both higher and lower trait levels are favoured. Disruptive selection can be a precursor to speciation.[54]

Alternatively, selection can be divided according to its effect on genetic diversity. Purifying or negative selection acts to remove genetic variation from the population (and is opposed by de novo mutation, which introduces new variation.[67][68] In contrast, balancing selection acts to maintain genetic variation in a population, even in the absence of de novo mutation, by negative frequency-dependent selection. One mechanism for this is heterozygote advantage, where individuals with two different alleles have a selective advantage over individuals with just one allele. The polymorphism at the human ABO blood group locus has been explained in this way.[69]

Another option is to classify selection by the life cycle stage at which it acts. Some biologists recognise just two types: viability (or survival) selection, which acts to increase an organism's probability of survival, and fecundity (or fertility or reproductive) selection, which acts to increase the rate of reproduction, given survival. Others split the life cycle into further components of selection. Thus viability and survival selection may be defined separately and respectively as acting to improve the probability of survival before and after reproductive age is reached, while fecundity selection may be split into additional sub-components including sexual selection, gametic selection, acting on gamete survival, and compatibility selection, acting on zygote formation.[70]

Selection can also be classified by the level or unit of selection. Individual selection acts on the individual, in the sense that adaptations are "for" the benefit of the individual, and result from selection among individuals. Gene selection acts directly at the level of the gene. In kin selection and intragenomic conflict, gene-level selection provides a more apt explanation of the underlying process. Group selection, if it occurs, acts on groups of organisms, on the assumption that groups replicate and mutate in an analogous way to genes and individuals. There is an ongoing debate over the degree to which group selection occurs in nature.[71]

Finally, selection can be classified according to the resource being competed for. Sexual selection results from competition for mates. Sexual selection typically proceeds via fecundity selection, sometimes at the expense of viability. Ecological selection is natural selection via any means other than sexual selection, such as kin selection, competition, and infanticide. Following Darwin, natural selection is sometimes defined as ecological selection, in which case sexual selection is considered a separate mechanism.[72]

Sexual selection as first articulated by Darwin and Wallace[73] refers specifically to competition for mates,[74] which can be intrasexual, between individuals of the same sex, that is malemale competition, or intersexual, where one gender chooses mates, most often with males displaying and females choosing.[75] However, in some species, mate choice is primarily by males, as in some fishes of the family Syngnathidae.[76][77]

Phenotypic traits can be displayed in one sex and desired in the other sex, causing a positive feedback loop called a Fisherian runaway, for example, the extravagant plumage of some male birds. An alternate theory proposed by the same Ronald Fisher in 1930 is the sexy son hypothesis, that mothers want promiscuous sons to give them large numbers of grandchildren and so choose promiscuous fathers for their children. Aggression between members of the same sex is sometimes associated with very distinctive features, such as the antlers of stags, which are used in combat with other stags. More generally, intrasexual selection is often associated with sexual dimorphism, including differences in body size between males and females of a species.[75]

Natural selection is seen in action in the development of antibiotic resistance in microorganisms. Since the discovery of penicillin in 1928, antibiotics have been used to fight bacterial diseases. The widespread misuse of antibiotics has selected for microbial resistance to antibiotics in clinical use, to the point that the methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has been described as a "superbug" because of the threat it poses to health and its relative invulnerability to existing drugs.[78] Response strategies typically include the use of different, stronger antibiotics; however, new strains of MRSA have recently emerged that are resistant even to these drugs.[79] This is an evolutionary arms race, in which bacteria develop strains less susceptible to antibiotics, while medical researchers attempt to develop new antibiotics that can kill them. A similar situation occurs with pesticide resistance in plants and insects. Arms races are not necessarily induced by man; a well-documented example involves the spread of a gene in the butterfly Hypolimnas bolina suppressing male-killing activity by Wolbachia bacteria parasites on the island of Samoa, where the spread of the gene is known to have occurred over a period of just five years [80][81]

A prerequisite for natural selection to result in adaptive evolution, novel traits and speciation is the presence of heritable genetic variation that results in fitness differences. Genetic variation is the result of mutations, genetic recombinations and alterations in the karyotype (the number, shape, size and internal arrangement of the chromosomes). Any of these changes might have an effect that is highly advantageous or highly disadvantageous, but large effects are rare. In the past, most changes in the genetic material were considered neutral or close to neutral because they occurred in noncoding DNA or resulted in a synonymous substitution. However, many mutations in non-coding DNA have deleterious effects.[82][83] Although both mutation rates and average fitness effects of mutations are dependent on the organism, a majority of mutations in humans are slightly deleterious.[84]

Some mutations occur in "toolkit" or regulatory genes. Changes in these often have large effects on the phenotype of the individual because they regulate the function of many other genes. Most, but not all, mutations in regulatory genes result in non-viable embryos. Some nonlethal regulatory mutations occur in HOX genes in humans, which can result in a cervical rib[85] or polydactyly, an increase in the number of fingers or toes.[86] When such mutations result in a higher fitness, natural selection favours these phenotypes and the novel trait spreads in the population. Established traits are not immutable; traits that have high fitness in one environmental context may be much less fit if environmental conditions change. In the absence of natural selection to preserve such a trait, it becomes more variable and deteriorate over time, possibly resulting in a vestigial manifestation of the trait, also called evolutionary baggage. In many circumstances, the apparently vestigial structure may retain a limited functionality, or may be co-opted for other advantageous traits in a phenomenon known as preadaptation. A famous example of a vestigial structure, the eye of the blind mole-rat, is believed to retain function in photoperiod perception.[87]

Speciation requires a degree of reproductive isolationthat is, a reduction in gene flow. However, it is intrinsic to the concept of a species that hybrids are selected against, opposing the evolution of reproductive isolation, a problem that was recognised by Darwin. The problem does not occur in allopatric speciation with geographically separated populations, which can diverge with different sets of mutations. E. B. Poulton realized in 1903 that reproductive isolation could evolve through divergence, if each lineage acquired a different, incompatible allele of the same gene. Selection against the heterozygote would then directly create reproductive isolation, leading to the BatesonDobzhanskyMuller model, further elaborated by H. Allen Orr and Michael Turelli.[88]

Natural selection acts on an organism's phenotype, or physical characteristics. Phenotype is determined by an organism's genetic make-up (genotype) and the environment in which the organism lives. When different organisms in a population possess different versions of a gene for a certain trait, each of these versions is known as an allele. It is this genetic variation that underlies differences in phenotype. An example is the ABO blood type antigens in humans, where three alleles govern the phenotype.[89]

Some traits are governed by only a single gene, but most traits are influenced by the interactions of many genes. A variation in one of the many genes that contributes to a trait may have only a small effect on the phenotype; together, these genes can produce a continuum of possible phenotypic values.[90]

When some component of a trait is heritable, selection alters the frequencies of the different alleles, or variants of the gene that produces the variants of the trait. Selection can be divided into three classes, on the basis of its effect on allele frequencies: directional, stabilizing, and purifying selection.[91] Directional selection occurs when an allele has a greater fitness than others, so that it increases in frequency, gaining an increasing share in the population. This process can continue until the allele is fixed and the entire population shares the fitter phenotype.[92] Far more common is stabilizing selection, which lowers the frequency of alleles that have a deleterious effect on the phenotype that is, produce organisms of lower fitness. This process can continue until the allele is eliminated from the population. Purifying selection conserves functional genetic features, such as protein-coding genes or regulatory sequences, over time by selective pressure against deleterious variants.[93]

Some forms of balancing selection do not result in fixation, but maintain an allele at intermediate frequencies in a population. This can occur in diploid species (with pairs of chromosomes) when heterozygous individuals (with just one copy of the allele) have a higher fitness than homozygous individuals (with two copies). This is called heterozygote advantage or over-dominance, of which the best-known example is the resistance to malaria in humans heterozygous for sickle-cell anaemia. Maintenance of allelic variation can also occur through disruptive or diversifying selection, which favours genotypes that depart from the average in either direction (that is, the opposite of over-dominance), and can result in a bimodal distribution of trait values. Finally, balancing selection can occur through frequency-dependent selection, where the fitness of one particular phenotype depends on the distribution of other phenotypes in the population. The principles of game theory have been applied to understand the fitness distributions in these situations, particularly in the study of kin selection and the evolution of reciprocal altruism.[94][95]

A portion of all genetic variation is functionally neutral, producing no phenotypic effect or significant difference in fitness. Motoo Kimura's neutral theory of molecular evolution by genetic drift proposes that this variation accounts for a large fraction of observed genetic diversity.[96] Neutral events can radically reduce genetic variation through population bottlenecks.[97] which among other things can cause the founder effect in initially small new populations.[98] When genetic variation does not result in differences in fitness, selection cannot directly affect the frequency of such variation. As a result, the genetic variation at those sites is higher than at sites where variation does influence fitness.[91] However, after a period with no new mutations, the genetic variation at these sites is eliminated due to genetic drift. Natural selection reduces genetic variation by eliminating maladapted individuals, and consequently the mutations that caused the maladaptation. At the same time, new mutations occur, resulting in a mutationselection balance. The exact outcome of the two processes depends both on the rate at which new mutations occur and on the strength of the natural selection, which is a function of how unfavourable the mutation proves to be.[99]

Genetic linkage occurs when the loci of two alleles are in close proximity on a chromosome. During the formation of gametes, recombination reshuffles the alleles. The chance that such a reshuffle occurs between two alleles is inversely related to the distance between them. Selective sweeps occur when an allele becomes more common in a population as a result of positive selection. As the prevalence of one allele increases, closely linked alleles can also become more common by "genetic hitchhiking", whether they are neutral or even slightly deleterious. A strong selective sweep results in a region of the genome where the positively selected haplotype (the allele and its neighbours) are in essence the only ones that exist in the population. Selective sweeps can be detected by measuring linkage disequilibrium, or whether a given haplotype is overrepresented in the population. Since a selective sweep also results in selection of neighbouring alleles, the presence of a block of strong linkage disequilibrium might indicate a 'recent' selective sweep near the centre of the block.[100]

Background selection is the opposite of a selective sweep. If a specific site experiences strong and persistent purifying selection, linked variation tends to be weeded out along with it, producing a region in the genome of low overall variability. Because background selection is a result of deleterious new mutations, which can occur randomly in any haplotype, it does not produce clear blocks of linkage disequilibrium, although with low recombination it can still lead to slightly negative linkage disequilibrium overall.[101]

Darwin's ideas, along with those of Adam Smith and Karl Marx, had a profound influence on 19th century thought, including his radical claim that "elaborately constructed forms, so different from each other, and dependent on each other in so complex a manner" evolved from the simplest forms of life by a few simple principles.[102] This inspired some of Darwin's most ardent supportersand provoked the strongest opposition. Natural selection had the power, according to Stephen Jay Gould, to "dethrone some of the deepest and most traditional comforts of Western thought", such as the belief that humans have a special place in the world.[103]

In the words of the philosopher Daniel Dennett, "Darwin's dangerous idea" of evolution by natural selection is a "universal acid," which cannot be kept restricted to any vessel or container, as it soon leaks out, working its way into ever-wider surroundings.[104] Thus, in the last decades, the concept of natural selection has spread from evolutionary biology to other disciplines, including evolutionary computation, quantum Darwinism, evolutionary economics, evolutionary epistemology, evolutionary psychology, and cosmological natural selection. This unlimited applicability has been called universal Darwinism.[105]

How life originated from inorganic matter remains an unresolved problem in biology. One prominent hypothesis is that life first appeared in the form of short self-replicating RNA polymers.[106] On this view, life may have come into existence when RNA chains first experienced the basic conditions, as conceived by Charles Darwin, for natural selection to operate. These conditions are: heritability, variation of type, and competition for limited resources. The fitness of an early RNA replicator would likely have been a function of adaptive capacities that were intrinsic (i.e., determined by the nucleotide sequence) and the availability of resources.[107][108] The three primary adaptive capacities could logically have been: (1) the capacity to replicate with moderate fidelity (giving rise to both heritability and variation of type), (2) the capacity to avoid decay, and (3) the capacity to acquire and process resources.[107][108] These capacities would have been determined initially by the folded configurations (including those configurations with ribozyme activity) of the RNA replicators that, in turn, would have been encoded in their individual nucleotide sequences.[109]

In 1881, the embryologist Wilhelm Roux published Der Kampf der Theile im Organismus (The Struggle of Parts in the Organism) in which he suggested that the development of an organism results from a Darwinian competition between the parts of the embryo, occurring at all levels, from molecules to organs.[110] In recent years, a modern version of this theory has been proposed by Jean-Jacques Kupiec. According to this cellular Darwinism, random variation at the molecular level generates diversity in cell types whereas cell interactions impose a characteristic order on the developing embryo.[111]

The social implications of the theory of evolution by natural selection also became the source of continuing controversy. Friedrich Engels, a German political philosopher and co-originator of the ideology of communism, wrote in 1872 that "Darwin did not know what a bitter satire he wrote on mankind, and especially on his countrymen, when he showed that free competition, the struggle for existence, which the economists celebrate as the highest historical achievement, is the normal state of the animal kingdom."[112] Herbert Spencer and the eugenics advocate Francis Galton's interpretation of natural selection as necessarily progressive, leading to supposed advances in intelligence and civilisation, became a justification for colonialism, eugenics, and social Darwinism. For example, in 1940, Konrad Lorenz, in writings that he subsequently disowned, used the theory as a justification for policies of the Nazi state. He wrote "...selection for toughness, heroism, and social utility... must be accomplished by some human institution, if mankind, in default of selective factors, is not to be ruined by domestication-induced degeneracy. The racial idea as the basis of our state has already accomplished much in this respect."[113] Others have developed ideas that human societies and culture evolve by mechanisms analogous to those that apply to evolution of species.[114]

More recently, work among anthropologists and psychologists has led to the development of sociobiology and later of evolutionary psychology, a field that attempts to explain features of human psychology in terms of adaptation to the ancestral environment. The most prominent example of evolutionary psychology, notably advanced in the early work of Noam Chomsky and later by Steven Pinker, is the hypothesis that the human brain has adapted to acquire the grammatical rules of natural language.[115] Other aspects of human behaviour and social structures, from specific cultural norms such as incest avoidance to broader patterns such as gender roles, have been hypothesised to have similar origins as adaptations to the early environment in which modern humans evolved. By analogy to the action of natural selection on genes, the concept of memes"units of cultural transmission," or culture's equivalents of genes undergoing selection and recombinationhas arisen, first described in this form by Richard Dawkins in 1976[116] and subsequently expanded upon by philosophers such as Daniel Dennett as explanations for complex cultural activities, including human consciousness.[117]

In 1922, Alfred J. Lotka proposed that natural selection might be understood as a physical principle that could be described in terms of the use of energy by a system,[118][119] a concept later developed by Howard T. Odum as the maximum power principle in thermodynamics, whereby evolutionary systems with selective advantage maximise the rate of useful energy transformation.[120]

The principles of natural selection have inspired a variety of computational techniques, such as "soft" artificial life, that simulate selective processes and can be highly efficient in 'adapting' entities to an environment defined by a specified fitness function.[121] For example, a class of heuristic optimisation algorithms known as genetic algorithms, pioneered by John Henry Holland in the 1970s and expanded upon by David E. Goldberg,[122] identify optimal solutions by simulated reproduction and mutation of a population of solutions defined by an initial probability distribution.[123] Such algorithms are particularly useful when applied to problems whose energy landscape is very rough or has many local minima.[124]

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