FIRE (Financial Independence) Calculator – Millennial Money

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This calculator helps you determine your financial independence number (also known as your FI or FIRE number), which is the amount of money you need for the rest of your life.

While you cant control all of the variables (like inflation and investing returns), you can control most of the variables, like how much money you spend and how much money you make. You might need less money than you think.

You can use this calculator to estimate your own FIRE number. But its important to not stress out about it and understand that your number will and should change as you change. The key is to calculate an estimate and to get comfortable with adjusting your own numbers as you grow and your life changes.

There is a direct correlation between your savings rate and the time it takes you to reach financial independence.

Its pretty simple: the more money you save the faster youll reach financial independence. Enter your numbers, test different scenarios, and see for yourself!

At different savings rates, here's how long it'd take you to achieve financial independence:

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FIRE (Financial Independence) Calculator - Millennial Money

Funding | The Official Website of The Duke & Duchess of Sussex

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Welcome to Sussex Royal, the source for factual information and details relating to the works and structure of Their Royal Highnesses The Duke and Duchess of Sussex. We are so pleased to have you as part of this community. In this section, you will find answers and clarification to questions that have come to the forefront in recent years. Many of you may be familiar with these policies, but for those of you who are not, we hope this page sheds some light on what can sometimes be misreported or quite confusing.

In 2020, The Duke and Duchess of Sussex have made the choice to transition into a new working model. As they step back as senior members of the Royal Family and no longer receive funding through the Sovereign Grant, they will become members of the Royal Family with financial independence which is something they look forward to. As The Duke and Duchess of Sussex prepare to make this change, the answers to the following questions aim to provide clarity on existing and future funding arrangements.

The Duke and Duchess of Sussex take great pride in their work and are committed to continuing their charitable endeavours as well as establishing new ones. In addition, they value the ability to earn a professional income, which in the current structure they are prohibited from doing. For this reason they have made the choice to become members of the Royal Family with financial independence. Their Royal Highnesses feel this new approach will enable them to continue to carry out their duties for Her Majesty The Queen, while having the future financial autonomy to work externally. While the contribution from The Sovereign Grant covers just five percent of costs for The Duke and Duchess and is specifically used for their official office expense, Their Royal Highnesses prefer to release this financial tie. More details on the specifics of the Sovereign Grant are outlined below.

The Sovereign Grant is the annual funding mechanism of the monarchy that covers the work of the Royal Family in support of HM The Queen including expenses to maintain official residences and workspaces. In this exchange, The Queen surrenders the revenue of the Crown Estate and in return, a portion of these public funds are granted to The Sovereign/The Queen for official expenditure. This is outlined in the 2018-19 Annual Report of the Sovereign Grant which is linked below. Please note, this structure replaced The Civil List in 2012. More details on this can be found on The United Kingdoms public sector information website: gov.uk

Yes, there is precedent for this structure and applies to other current members of the Royal Family who support the monarch and also have full time jobs external to their commitment to the monarchy.

No, under the current structure and financing arrangements, they are prohibited from earning any income in any form.

No, see above.

AsworkingmembersoftheRoyalFamily,The Duke and Duchess of Sussex remain dedicated to maximising Her Majestys legacy both in the UK and throughout the Commonwealth. They will continue to proudly do so by supporting their patronages and carrying out works for The Monarchy within the UK or abroad, as called upon.

Five percent of the funding for their official office was provided through the Sovereign Grant starting in 2019 (more details on Sovereign Grant below). Public fundinghasnever been used, nor would it ever be used for privateexpenditure by The Duke and Duchess of Sussex, who also do not receive any tax privileges.

Since the establishment of The Office of The Duke and Duchess of Sussex, 95 percent of the funding received for their Office expenditure is derived from income allocated by HRH The Prince of Wales, generated throughtheDuchyofCornwall.This provision has been in place since Prince William and Prince Harry first established their offices in support of The Queen, and is the responsibility of The Prince of Wales. This information continues to be available on The Duchy of Cornwall website.

As described above, the remaining five percent of funding for the Office of The Duke and Duchess of Sussex, covering costs associated with employing members of their official office, is received through the SovereignGrant. During the course of 2020, The Duke and Duchess of Sussex have made the choice to step back as senior members of the Royal Family and no longer receive funding through the Sovereign Grant, thereby making them members of the Royal Family with financial independence. This phased approach will take time to transition in consultation with other senior members of the Royal Family, but Their Royal Highnesses are hopeful that this change is in the best interest for all and look forward to carrying out their duties to the monarch as well as their charitable work with financial autonomy.

In the 2018-2019 fiscal report, Her Majesty The Queen surrendered approximately 329 million from the Crown Estate to the government. In exchange for this contribution, in return, the government granted the sovereign approximately 82 million to cover the costs for official expenditure. This constitutes the Sovereign Grant. Further detail as stated on gov.uk can be found below:

The Sovereign Grant Act 2011 came into effect on 1 April 2012. It sets the single grant supporting the monarchs official business, enabling The Queen to discharge her duties as Head of State. It meets the central staff costs and running expenses of Her Majestys official household such things as official receptions, investitures, garden parties and so on. It also covers maintenance of the Royal Palaces in England and the cost of travel to carry out royal engagements such as opening buildings and other royal visits.

In exchange for this public support, The Queen surrenders the revenue from The Crown Estate to the government which for 2017-18 was 329.4 million. The Sovereign Grant for 2019-20 is 82.4 million which is 25% of 329.4 million.

It was announced in November 2019 that the Sovereign Grant for 2020-21 will be 85.9 million. This is 25% of The Crown Estates revenue surplus in 2018-19 which was 343.5 million.

It is worth noting that an annual grant of approximately 30 million has been added to the above figure for the 10 year re-servicing plan of Buckingham Palace, bringing the sum to 85.9 million. The below graphic helps to further explain this exchange. For clarity, in the graphic sourced from The BBC, HM refers to Her Majesty.

The contribution from UK taxpayers towards the full overhead of the British Monarchy is equivalent to approximately 1 per head per year.

The British Royal Family generates an estimated 1.8 billion a year in tourism revenues for The United Kingdom.

The refurbishment of Frogmore Cottage, the Grade-2listedbuilding in Windsor Home Park was funded by Her Majesty The Queen through the Sovereign Grant, reflecting the Monarchys responsibility to maintain the upkeep of buildings with historical significance (see above). Expenses related to fixtures, furnishings, and fittings at the official residence which is owned by Her Majesty the Queen were funded privately by The Duke and Duchess of Sussex. As stated on The Official UK Government website: The occupied Royal Palaces are held in trust for the nation by The Queen as Sovereign. Their maintenance and upkeep is one of the expenses met by the government in return for the surrender by the Sovereign of the hereditary revenues of the Crown (mainly the profit from the Crown Estate). The Sovereign Grant will allow the Royal Household to set its own priorities and thus generate economies. The occupied Royal Palaces are: Buckingham Palace, St Jamess Palace, the residential and office areas of Kensington Palace, the Royal Mews and Royal Paddocks at Hampton Court, Windsor Castle and buildings in the Home and Great Parks at Windsor.

The Duke and Duchess of Sussex chose to move to Windsor for various reasons. Their previous residence of Nottingham Cottage on the grounds of Kensington Palace could not accommodate their growing family. The option of Apartment 1 in Kensington Palace was estimated to cost in excess of 4 million for mandated renovations including the removal of asbestos (see details above on the Monarchys responsibility for this upkeep). This residence would not have been available for them to occupy until the fourth quarter of 2020. As a result, Her Majesty The Queen offered The Duke and Duchess the use of Frogmore Cottage, which was already undergoing mandated renovations, and would be available to move in before the birth of their son. The refurbishment cost equated to 50 percent of the originally suggested property for their proposed official residence at Kensington Palace. It is for these reasons, The Duke and Duchess of Sussex chose Frogmore Cottage as their Official Residence.

Frogmore Cottage will continue to be the property of Her Majesty the Queen. The Duke and Duchess of Sussex will continue to use Frogmore Cottage with the permission of Her Majesty The Queen as their official residence as they continue to support the Monarchy, and so that their family will always have a place to call home in the United Kingdom.

All travel arrangements undertaken by The Duke and Duchess in their private time have always been and will continue to be paid for privately and not by UK taxpayers. With their transition to becoming members of the Royal Family with financial independence this will continue to be the case. Wherever possible and unless advised otherwise on security grounds, their logistical arrangements are undertaken via commercial air carriers, local trains and fuel-efficient vehicles, be it for official or personal travel.

The Duke and Duchess proudly carry out official overseas visits in support of Her Majesty The Queen at the request of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO), as is the case for all members of the Royal Family. The length and location of these tours are determined by the FCO and the Royal Visits Committee. All Official overseas visits are in support of Her Majestys Governments objectives and paid for by The Sovereign Grant as well as contributions from the host country, when appropriate.

The provision of armed security by The Metropolitan Police is mandated by the Home Office, a ministerial department of Her Majestys Government, responsible for security and law & order. As stated on gov.uk, No breakdown of security costs is available as disclosure of such information could compromise the integrity of these arrangements and affect the security of the individuals protected. It is long established policy not to comment upon the protective security arrangements and their related costs for members of the Royal Family or their residences.

More Information, please visit:

Royal Finances

The Duchy of Cornwall

The Official United Kingdom Public Sector Information Website

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Funding | The Official Website of The Duke & Duchess of Sussex

Financial Independence, Retire Early (FIRE) – The Motley Fool

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Achieving financial independence is deeply embedded in the American dream. Yet millions of young Americans see their parents and grandparents struggling to reach traditional retirement, living with minimal fixed incomes, or having to work far longer than they wanted.

FIRE stands for "Financial Independence, Retire Early." The goal is to attain enough wealth to retire early through a combination of a very high savings rate and a frugal lifestyle. And we aren't talking about retirement at 55. Most FIRE practitioners aim to retire in their 40s or even earlier.

Does FIRE make sense for you? If you're frugal, able to divert a very large portion of your income to retirement savings and investments, and have a do-it-yourself spirit, then adopting a FIRE lifestyle could be a perfect path to financial freedom. Chances are, even if you're not interested in going full-on FIRE, elements of the movement can help you reach your financial goals faster.

Financial independence means, in the most basic sense, that an individual no longer needs to work for money. Put another way, they are no longer financially dependent on an employer to provide them with a paycheck.

At its core, financial independence appeals to those who value their time at least as much as they value an increasing investment portfolio. At a certain point, the value of accumulating more and more assets begins to diminish, which generally makes people more aware of how they're spending their time.

From a purely mathematical standpoint, achieving financial independence requires having enough assets saved to predictably cover your living expenses in perpetuity. A good starting point is to set a savings goal based on the 4% withdrawal rule, which works out to building a nest egg equal to about 25 times your annual spending requirements. For example, someone who needs $50,000 per year would need to have a $1.25 million portfolio.

The FIRE movement is made up of mostly ordinary individuals -- some of whom produce FIRE content via podcasts and blogs, and many who don't -- who have rallied around the principles of financial independence. Some are incredibly aggressive savers, some are remarkable investors, and some are insanely high earners. But all want to reduce the dependence they have on their respective employers and at least have the optionto live life on their own terms.

When it comes to FIRE, you most certainly can have the "FI" piece without the "RE." This serves as a point of caution: Many FIRE movement adherents recommend retiring "to" a career or lifestyle you enjoy as opposed to retiring "from" a workplace you hate.

Being a 35-year-old retiree with nothing but time ahead can seem like a daunting proposition on its own. It's perfectly reasonable -- and abundantly common -- to achieve financial independence but continue to work in some capacity.

Those familiar with FIRE might think its adherents are frugal to an extreme. They might think that FIRE means living a life of pure sacrifice until an arbitrary portfolio value is reached. On the contrary, FIRE principles are freely accessible to almost anyone.

Make no mistake -- there are some strategic sacrifices involved -- but even the most ardent FIRE practitioners make room for enjoyment and self-indulgence. To get to their FIRE number as fast as possible, however, many FI devotees follow some of the value-maximizing principles of financial planning.

Some of the more common FIRE tips include:

The difference between the typical employee and the FIRE adherent is the one seeking financial independence is very deliberate in ensuring that each of these tips is met and surpassed. They are purposeful. Every dollar has a job. FIRE proponents understand that each of their small actions plays a significant role in ultimately hitting their retirement number, which will only come sooner with greater dedication.

It starts with asking yourself some basic questions and then doing the math to figure out how much you'll need to save -- or if you need to adjust your goals.

Once you've answered these two questions, you can start working to determine if your goal is feasible. Let's start with the first number, which is how much you expect to spend each year in retirement.

As mentioned earlier, a helpful rule of thumb is the "4% rule," which says your retirement savings will need to be large enough for you to withdraw 4% per year. In other words, your nest egg needs to be 25 times the amount you'll withdraw the first year. In each successive year, your withdrawal amount may be increased by inflation.

In the previous example, we used this concept to show that someone anticipating $50,000 in annual living expenses would need to accumulate $1.25 million. If your expectations for annual expenses in retirement aren't quite so frugal -- the median U.S. household income is now closer to $60,000 per year -- you may need to accumulate even more.

Let's use $1.25 million as a starting point, along with the next question:When do you want to retire?

If someone who's 25 wants to retire at 40 with a $1.25 million nest egg, they'd have to stick $83,000 per year in a savings account at current interest yields. Needless to say, that's out of reach for many people who don't earn a significant income.

However, there are ways to boost how much you save and to maximize how much your savings grow so you're not doing all the hard work on your own. And remember, FIRE is far from an all-or-nothing proposition. Even reaching 50% of your FI goal is a tremendous accomplishment and will earn you a significant amount of financial flexibility.

Of course, these are simple numbers to illustrate the point: Saving a lot of money is much harder than growing wealth by investing a portion of that savings over the long term. And, perhaps a more salient point: Investing as much money as you can -- as soon as possible -- will pave the way toward financial freedom.

One of the unique things about the FIRE movement is that its constituents come from all walks of life and all income levels. You don't need to be a Wall Street executive to reach financial independence; anyone can accelerate their trajectory toward FI by following a few simple financial planning principles. Retiring early, on the other hand, tends to be more controversial and more self-defined. Becoming financially independent doesn't force you into quitting your job the next day, but it certainly does give you the choice.

Many people are bothered by the idea that FIRE requires too much sacrifice of the "now." Yet many FIRE practitioners say the lifestyle can be deeply gratifying. Sure, there are sacrifices, but learning basic plumbing to fix a leaky faucet can save you hundreds of dollars versus hiring a handyman or plumber. It can also unlock your potential to do far more things on your own.

FIRE devotees also describe the lifestyle as being physically and emotionally healthy. Instead of a pricey resort vacation -- often with the added stress of air travel -- a camping or backpacking trip with family and close friends not only costs less, but it can result in more meaningful experiences.

But howmuch sacrifice FIRE requires you and your family to make really depends on your goals, your disposable income, and what you're prepared to give up or cut back on to get your savings rate as high as possible.

It's also possible to find over time that many things that were hard to give up are things you're better off having left behind. A simpler, less-expensive lifestyle that prioritizes experiences over things, especially when it helps you achieve financial independence as early as you can, is worth striving for.

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Financial Independence, Retire Early (FIRE) - The Motley Fool

INDEPENDENCE REALTY TRUST, INC. : Results of Operations and Financial Condition, Financial Statements and Exhibits (form 8-K) – Marketscreener.com

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INDEPENDENCE REALTY TRUST, INC. : Results of Operations and Financial Condition, Financial Statements and Exhibits (form 8-K)  Marketscreener.com

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INDEPENDENCE REALTY TRUST, INC. : Results of Operations and Financial Condition, Financial Statements and Exhibits (form 8-K) - Marketscreener.com

Cyberpunk 2077 – ESRB

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Rating Summary

This is a first-person RPG/shooter in which players assume the role of a mercenary named V trying to make their way through the open-world of Night City. Players can explore futuristic locations, interact with citizens, perform missions, and engage in combat to complete various objectives within a storyline. Characters use handguns, machine guns, rifles, and explosives during frenetic firefights with humans and cybernetically enhanced enemies; players can also use melee weapons (e.g., wrist-mounted blades, enhanced limbs) to stab enemies and, in some cases, dismember them. Combat is frenetic, with frequent gunfire, cries of pain, explosions, and blood-splatter effects. Some locations depict mutilated corpses with open chest cavities and/or exposed organs/entrails. During one quest, players assist a character by hammering nails through his hands and feet; screaming sounds and blood effects accompany the scene. The game contains nudity and sexual material: Players can select a gender and customize their character; customization can include depictions of breasts, buttocks, and genitalia, as well as various sizes and combinations of genitals. Players can encounter events where they have the option to engage in sexual activities with other main characters or prostitutesthese brief sex scenes (from a first-person perspective) depict partially nude characters moaning suggestively while moving through various positions. Some scenes contain brief depictions of thrusting motions; other scenes depict a character's head moving towards a partner's crotch. The game contains frequent depictions and references to fictional drugs, including characters taking puffs/hits from a state-altering inhaler/stimulant; an animated billboard ad depicts a man snorting speed. Some sequences allow the player to drink alcoholic beverages repeatedly until the screen distorts; player's character can also drive cars while drunk. The words f**k and "c*nt" appear in the dialogue.

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Cyberpunk 2077 - ESRB

Cyberpunk 2077 Hits 90% Positive Reviews On Steam For The First Time – Forbes

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  1. Cyberpunk 2077 Hits 90% Positive Reviews On Steam For The First Time  Forbes
  2. Cyberpunk 2077 Has Had 1 Million Active Players Each Day for 4 Weeks in a Row  GameRant
  3. A Month Later, A Million Chooms Are Still Logging Into Cyberpunk 2077 Every Day  GameSpot
  4. Cyberpunk 2077 Passes Another Milestone  ComicBook.com
  5. Cyberpunk 2077 Devs Celebrate One Million Daily Active Player Count Across Four Weeks  MP1st
  6. View Full Coverage on Google News

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Cyberpunk 2077 Hits 90% Positive Reviews On Steam For The First Time - Forbes

Hit or Stand – Blackjack Strategy Game & Trainer

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Blackjack Odds: Playing Hit or Stand will improve your blackjack strategy, and increase your chances of winning money. However, unless you count cards, the odds of blackjack are against you, even if you are a perfect player. By chance, the outcome may sway in your favor from time to time; but the rule is: the more you gamble the more money you lose.

Gambling Addiction: Gambling is addictive, really. If you find yourself spending an unreasonable amount of time in casinos, or if you find that gambling is having a negative impact on you life and finances, seek help. There should be nothing embarrassing about it. Visit the Gambler's Anonymous website to learn more.

Counting Cards: While counting cards can put the odds of blackjack in your favor, it requires a huge time commitment. It is difficult to learn, and very time consuming to play. You can learn about counting cards from books on our blackjack book list and from websites on our links page. Please remember that many blackjack books and websites are trying to sell you something. They have incentives to convince you of the ease and profitability of card counting. Also note that online casinos shuffle the deck after each deal, so it is impossible to count cards when playing blackjack online.

Gambling can be fun and harmless, if you expect to lose. View your losses as the ticket price for a night of entertainment.

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Hit or Stand - Blackjack Strategy Game & Trainer

Why Did Trump Plead The Fifth Amendment?What We Do Know … – Newsweek

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Donald Trump hasn't had the easiest month, with both the FBI search of his Mar-a-Lago residence and a New York deposition to contend with.

The hearing in New York centers on Trump's tax affairs and valuations of Trump organization assets.

Reports of the hearing said that Trump pleaded the Fifth amendment more than 440 times.

Trump, in a statement, said: "I once asked, 'If you're innocent, why are you taking the Fifth Amendment?' Now I know the answer to that question."

"When your family, your company and all the people in your orbit have become the targets of an unfounded, politically motivated Witch Hunt supported by lawyers, prosecutors and the Fake News Media, you have no choice," Trump said.

"Accordingly, under the advice of my counsel and for all of the above reasons, I declined to answer the questions under the rights and privileges afforded to every citizen under the United States Constitution," he added.

However, the circumstances of why Trump chose to use the Fifth are more complex than a simple "no comment" statement in a criminal matter.

To find out what it all means, Newsweek investigated Trump's past comments about the amendment, his potential reasoning for the apparent U-turn, and what it could mean for future hearings.

Trump is being rather coy in his statement, implying that in his past comments he merely questioned the reasons for taking the fifth. In fact, he openly criticized Hillary Clinton's aides during the 2016 presidential campaign for pleading the Fifth in the probe of her use of a private email server.

"So there are five people taking the Fifth Amendment, like you see on the mob, right? You see the mob takes the Fifth. If you're innocent, why are you taking the Fifth Amendment?" Trump asked the crowd rhetorically at an Iowa rally in September 2016.

Even though Trump made the admission that his previous comments may have been unwise, critics on social media were quick to point out the apparent hypocrisy.

There are a few things to unpack here. Firstly, Trump made a false equivocation comparing the Hillary Clinton email probe alongside "the mob." Although the investigation was led by the FBI, it examined whether criminal charges could be sought.

The comparison with the mob did imply, arguably, that Clinton was under criminal investigation.

On July 5, 2016, then-FBI director James Comey released a statement saying that the FBI "cannot find a case that would support bringing criminal charges on these facts" adding "we are expressing to Justice our view that no charges are appropriate in this case."

That being said, the comments on Twitter about Trump's use of the Fifth in New York do not make distinctions about the nature of the hearing either.

The civil case, led by New York District Attorney Letitia James, is investigating the valuation of Trump's assets, and whether the former president's business, the Trump Organization, misrepresented the stated valuations of some of its real estate assets for financial gain, including better terms on loans and insurance, as well as tax benefits.

Trump has strongly denied any wrongdoing.

Although the principle of the Fifth amendment remains the same whether in a criminal or civil case, the reasons for doing so are more nuanced, something that was not explained by Trump's social media critics.

To assess this in more detail, Newsweek spoke to a number of legal experts in constitutional law and criminal and civil litigation to find out more.

Professor Erwin Chemerinsky, Dean of Berkeley Law, told Newsweek: "A person has a right not to answer any questions, in a criminal or civil case, that might lead to statements that could lead to criminal liability.

"In a criminal case, no adverse inference can be drawn from invoking the privilege against self-incrimination," he added.

"In a civil case, an adverse inference can be drawn from invoking the privilege."

Adverse inference is a legal term, which effectively means that when plaintiffs try to present evidence on a point essential to their case, and cannot do so because the document has been destroyed by the defendant, the jury can infer that the evidence would have been adverse to the defendant, and adopt the plaintiff's reasonable interpretation of what the document would have said.

This was supported by Professor Katherine J Florey of UC Davis School of Law, who said that the consequences of taking the Fifth can have a more negative effect on the outcome of a civil case.

"In the criminal setting, juries are not permitted to draw an adverse inference from a defendant's decision to invoke the Fifth, but in some circumstances they may be permitted to do so in civil trials," Professor Florey said.

"It is also the case that, when a defendant in a civil trial relies on the Fifth, they will generally be barred from offering other evidence and/or testimony on the issue about which they refused to answer questions. The idea is to prevent defendants from selectively disclosing only information that helps them.

"In short, relying on the Fifth in a civil proceeding may have some negative effects in that proceeding, allowing an adverse inference and preventing the defendant from introducing some potentially helpful evidence.

"On the other hand, it may be the right choice for a defendant who has significant concerns that they may be criminally prosecuted."

So, while pleading the Fifth in the deposition could prevent Trump from providing other evidence at a later point, which could support his case, the prospect of criminal liability may be looming large.

Jimmy Gurule, a Professor of Law at the University of Notre Dame, added that anything Trump said during his deposition "could be used against him in a criminal trial on charges related to allegations that he unlawfully inflated the value of his real estate properties in NYC."

"If proven, Trump could be charged and convicted of tax fraud, as well as wire fraud and mail fraud," Professor Gurule said.

"Second, Trump fears that disclosing harmful information during his deposition could be used against him to prove the civil claims. For example, his deposition testimony could be used to prove that he 'knowingly' inflated the value of his real estate holdings to avoid paying taxes.

"Finally, Trump likely fears that if he testified untruthfully during his deposition, he could open himself up to perjury charges."

The possibility that his tax affairs may be exposed, or that Trump could end up saying something untruthful, may have given him enough reason to remain silent during the deposition.

Details of the hearing on Wednesday, August 10, 2022 haven't been revealed.

It's been reported that Trump pleaded the Fifth amendment more than 440 times, according to an NBC News source, who claimed to have knowledge of the deposition. Newsweek has not been able to independently verify this.

Trump's attorney Ron Feschetti said that the only question he answered was his name. A spokesman for Letitia James' office, confirmed the former president took the Fifth.

"Attorney General Letitia James took part in the deposition during which Mr. Trump invoked his Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination," James' statement said.

"Attorney General James will pursue the facts and the law wherever they may lead. Our investigation continues."

Some commentators also speculated that James could expand her probe to bring criminal charges from a different Trump case, led by Manhattan District Attorney Alvin Bragg, who in the end decided not to indict the former president. While that remains a possibility, there is so far no evidence that she will do so.

Finally, as much as we can speculate on Trump's motivation for pleading the Fifth, that too is an unknown.

Trump has been openly hostile toward Attorney General James and believes the probe is politically motivated, that is part of a broader "witch hunt" targeting him and his allies.

Newsweek has contacted Donald Trump for comment.

Correction 08/12/22 10.53 a.m. ET: A spelling of Hillary Clinton's first name was corrected

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Why Did Trump Plead The Fifth Amendment?What We Do Know ... - Newsweek

Understanding the Fifth Amendment Right to Remain Silent

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The Fifth Amendment right to remain silent is one of the most valuable rights we have. But there is a lot of confusion about what this right entails: when can you invoke the right to remain silent? Doesnt pleading the Fifth make you look guilty? Are there any consequences? Does this right apply to searches of my phone or documents?

In this article, we answer many of those questions.

Most of uslearned about theFifth Amendment in school but here is a refresher: it is one of the original ten amendments to the United States Constitution contained in the Bill of Rights. Heres the full text:

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

As you can see, many important criminal procedure concepts come from this amendment. Theportion in bold is what we know today as the right to remain silent, 5th amendment privilege, right against self incrimination, and other names.

There is afascinating history to be told of the various abuses in colonial America that this amendment was designed toaddress but we are going to jump ahead to the 21st century and take a look at what role the amendment plays in our society today.

If you remember only onething from this post it should bethis: innocent people can (and often should!) invoke the their Fifth Amendment protection. The Framers included this amendment to protect both the guilty and the innocent. And, in a criminal case, the defendants refusal to testify cannot be used against him. The jury is specifically instructed that they are to draw no adverse conclusions from this fact.

The Supreme Court has recognized that there may be situations where a person is innocent, but may have rational reasons to invoke the 5th. Lets take a real-life example from the Supreme Court case of Ohio v. Reiner. In that case, a father was accused of injuring his baby son, resulting in the sons death. The fathers defense was that he did not injure the baby, and that the injuries were caused by the babysitter.

The babysitter maintained her innocence. The Supreme Court said that she was allowed to assert her 5th Amendment right. The Court made it clear that innocent people are entitled to protection of the right to remain silent. In fact, that right is designed to protect the innocent.

You might be asking: if she was innocent, why did she want to remain silent? Because facts that she would have to admit to if she was questionedlike the fact that she was alone with the baby on a number of occasionscould later be used as evidence against her if someone decided to prosecute her. She was with the baby in the time frame that the injuries happened. Under these circumstances, it would be reasonable for the babysitter to fear that her statements could be used against her and incriminate her.

This kind of situation also sometimes comes up in white collar cases. For example, an administrative assistant is called to testify. That assistant is asked about filling out certain paperwork for the supervisor, who is charged with creating fraudulent paperwork. The assistant may well not want to answer the questions, because they provide part of the evidence that could be used against him if prosecutors had concluded that the assistant was in on the scheme.

But keep in mind, you cannot use the right to remain silent just because you do not want to testify. The Supreme Court has referred to this as a danger of imaginary and unsubstantial character. So for example, if you are innocently standing at an intersection and you see a car crash, you cannot refuse to testify on Fifth Amendment grounds.

There might be. Many people fear that if they choose to remain silent, they will look like they have something to hide, or people may assume they are guilty. Unfortunately, this can be true in some cases.

This may also have other implications. If you take our administrative assistant example, the corporation he is working for may fire him if he takes the Fifth Amendment, based on a policy that employees must cooperate with investigators and legal proceedings.

As we discuss further in this article, refusing to testify in a civil case can have its own consequences too.

The consequences of exercising the right to remain silent are also different depending on whether you are a defendant or a witness. If you are defendant and choose to take the stand, you waive the right to remain silent at least on the subjects that you testified about on direct. For witnesses, there is the option to invoke the Fifth Amendment on some subjects and not on others.

Yes. Although the terms witness and criminal case naturally evoke visions of a criminal trial, the Supreme Court has long held that the Fifth Amendment applies outside a criminal courtroom.

It applies any time a person is forced to make a statement that could be used to incriminate him. A (non-exhaustive) list of situations where the Fifth Amendment applies outside a criminal trial includes: traffic stops, police interrogations, grand jury proceedings, arrests,civil depositions, civil trials, and testimony before the Unite States Congress. We examine some of these below.

Yes, you can claim your fifth amendment right in response to police questioning during a traffic stop.

Imagine you have justpulled onto the shoulderof the roadand thepolice lightsare flashing in your rear view mirror. After the officer receives your license and registration, what does he do next? Usually, the officer will ask some questionabout thereason for his traffic stop: Do you know why I pulled you over? Do you know how fast you were going? Did you know your license was suspended? Have you had anything to drink?

The officers questions are designed to elicit incriminating answers that he can use against you in traffic court. For example, if you admit you weredriving over the limit, you have confessed to speeding. The officer can testify that you admitted to exceeding the posted speed limit. Therefore, the Fifth Amendment gives you the right to refuse to answer questions like these during a traffic stop.

Yes, you can claim the Fifth Amendment following an arrest. In fact, law enforcement is required to remind you of this right by giving you the famous Miranda warnings.

In Miranda v. Arizona, the Supreme Court held that statementsmade duringquestioning of a person in police custody are inadmissible in court unless the person has first been warned by police thattheir statements could be used against them. The rationale for the Courts decision was that police custody is such an inherently coercive environment that the right to remain silent requiredan additional layer of legal protection to make it truly meaningful. Of course, whether someone is in police custody for Miranda purposes is not always obvious but that is a subject for another post.

In a typical case, police will take an arrested person they wish to question to an interview room at the station and may handcuff the person to a wall or desk. The person is clearly in custody. Before beginning the questioning, police will have the person sign a written Miranda waiver of the right to remain silent (and the right to have counsel present as well). The person has now waived his right to remain silent and his answers can be used against him.

It is usually a bad idea to waive your right to remain silent following arrest. If you wish to cooperate with police, you can do so much more effectively with the assistance of counsel.

Your case will not be dismissed. However, the prosecutors will not be allowed to use any statements you made while in custody during police questioning. This is called the exclusionary rule.

You can always refuse to talk to federal agents or the police. But remember, the 5th amendment right to remain silent is only triggered in custodial situations. If you are free to leave or stop the questioning at any time, that would not be considered a coercive setting for purposes of the right to remain silent. But, in these settings you have the right to decline to speak to agents, and there are many reasons why you should exercise that right.

Yes. The Supreme Court has held that forcing government employees to answer questions about potentially criminal conduct on pain of loss of employment constitutes compelled testimony under the Fifth Amendment. Because the Amendment only protects us against state action, the same is not true for employees in the private sector.

For a more lengthy treatment of this subject, you can read this blog post.

Yes, you can plead the fifth in a civil trial or deposition. But, whether you should or should not do so is often an issue that requires you to waive certain risks and benefits.

If you refuse to testify in a civil matter, there can be adverse consequences for the case. For example, lets say you are in a car accident and sue for negligence. But at trial, you take the 5th because you do not want to admit to drinking, which the defendants lawyer will definitely ask you about. The decision not to testify deprives you of the right to tell your side of the story, and if there are no other witnesses you can call, this may mean that you may not be able to win the case.

Also, if you invoke the Fifth Amendment during an earlier stage of proceedings, such as a pretrial hearing or in a discovery deposition, you will likely later be barred from testifying. And, in some cases, if you are the defendant in a civil case and you refuse to testify, the judge may instruct the jury that they can draw an adverse inference, which means to assume that the facts would not have been favorable to you had you testified.

Yes, you can claim the Fifth before a grand jury. Before we get into the details, recall that a grand jury is a group of 16 to 23 people impaneled to investigate cases and issue indictments. The prosecutor presents her witnesses, documents and other evidence to the grand jury and it decides if there is probable cause to indict.

So how does the grand jury implicate the Fifth Amendment? Because compliance with a grand jury subpoena is mandatory. Refusing to testify can result in a fine or imprisonment for contempt. In the language of the Amendment, you are being compelled to testify. So, the 5th Amendment right applies.

Of course, many grand jury witnesses have no need to plead the Fifth. The classic example is the man caught standing in the teller line during a bank robbery. Or, the example above with the witness to a car accident.

Other cases are not so clear. Lets say you are subpoenaed to testify about a work colleague suspected of fraud, as in the example of the administrative assistant. Might the prosecutor suspect you were in on it?

The best way to decide if you should plead the fifth is to consult an attorney with experience in grand jury matters. The attorney will review the facts, probably talk to the prosecutor, investigate the facts, and decide if you should take the Fifth.

Your lawyer may counsel you to take the Fifth even though you claim innocence. To repeat what has already been said in this post you can take the Fifth even if you are innocent, including before a grand jury. Even if you claim innocence, the government might still use your testimony against you if it can be combined with other evidence to show guilt.

Lets go back to our example of a work colleague suspected of fraud to see how this might happen. Even if you deny knowledge of his fraudulent activities, the prosecutor can question you before the grand jury about the extent of your relationship. If you admit to a close relationship, that admission could be a link in the chain of evidence used to convict you of fraud or perhaps acting as an accessory. You may therefore decline to answer questions about your relationship with your work colleague on Fifth Amendment grounds even if you claim ignorance of his alleged fraud.

Lets assume you do plead the Fifth, how would that work? If your attorney notifies the prosecutor of your intentions, your testimony may be called off. If the prosecutor does not withdraw the subpoena, you still have to appear. Federal grand juries usually sit at the courthouse and your attorney can accompany you there. However, your lawyer will not be able to enter the grand jury room itself. You should therefore be ready to assert your rights yourself with a simple prepared statement such as I decline to answer on Fifth Amendment grounds. You are also allowed to exit the grand jury room as many times as you like between questions to talk to your counsel.

In some cases, you can invoke the Fifth Amendment in response to a subpoena to produce documents. This is so because the act of production itself can indicate guilt. Here is how one federal Circuit Court of Appeals explained it:

Specifically, the act of production communicates at least four different statements. It testifies to the fact that: i) the documents responsive to a given subpoena exist, ii) they are in the possession or control of the subpoenaed party; iii) the documents provided in response to the subpoena are authentic; and iv) the responding party believes that the documents produced are those described in the subpoena.

Invoking the Fifth Amendment in response to a subpoena for documents is sometimes called the act of production privilege.

This does not mean that you can simply ignore the subpoena. You will quickly find yourself being called before a judge to explain why the subpoena went unanswered. You will have to notify the prosecutor that you are invoking your act of production privilege. An attorney experienced in investigations can be of great assistance in effectively exercising this right.

Yes. The Supreme Court has held that the Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination is available to recipients of congressional subpoenas.

Your company does not have any Fifth Amendment rights. Therefore, if a subpoena is directed to a company rather than an individual, the company itself cannot plead the Fifth. Prosecutors are aware of this and will subpoena a company rather than an individual wherever possible to avoid Fifth Amendment litigation. However, you may still be able to claim an act of production privilege (see above) if you will be the one responsible for producing the documents on behalf of a company.

Yes, the right can be waived. We have already mentioned one obvious case of waiver in our discussion of Miranda rights above that is, where the privilege is explicitly waived in writing.

Other cases are not as obvious. If a witness attempts to plead the Fifth part way through his testimony on a particular subject, it may be too late. Why? Because he is considered to have waived the right by initially agreeing to testify about a particular subject. This is sometimes referred to as selective assertion of the Fifth Amendment and it is generally not allowed. The rationale for the rule is that allowing a witness to make selective assertions of the Fifth deprives his opponent of a fair right to cross examine him.

To guard against waiver, it is often advisable to make your Fifth Amendment claim as broad as reasonably possible.

If you resist a government subpoena to testify or produce documents on Fifth Amendment grounds, the government may respond by giving you immunity as to those statements or documents, meaning it will promise not to use them against you. Because the statements or documents may no longer be used against you in light of the immunity, you may no longer have a valid Fifth Amendment claim.

There are many details to consider where the government attempts to grant immunity, and a detailed discussion of them is well beyond the scope of this post. You should consult an attorney experienced in government investigations to represent you in negotiations with the government involving a grant of immunity.

As mentioned in passing above, a defendants decision not to testify at trial cannot be used against him. If the trial is before a jury, the judge will instruct the jury that they can draw no adverse inference from a defendants decision not to testify. Here is a standard jury instruction on this point, used by many federal judges:

The defendant chose not to testify in this case. Under our Constitution, a defendant has no obligation to testify or to present any evidence because it is the governments burden to prove a defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. A defendant is never required to prove that he is innocent.

Therefore, you must not attach any significance to the fact that a given defendant did not testify. No adverse inference against a defendant may be drawn by you because he did not take the witness stand, and you may not consider it in any way in your deliberations in the jury room.

The prosecutor is also prohibited from making any comment during his closing argument about the defendants decision not to testify.

Link:

Understanding the Fifth Amendment Right to Remain Silent

Summer Olympic Games – Wikipedia

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Major international multi-sport event

The Summer Olympic Games (French: Jeux olympiques d't), also known as the Games of the Olympiad, and often referred to as the Summer Olympics, is a major international multi-sport event normally held once every four years. The inaugural Games took place in 1896 in Athens, Greece, and the most recent edition was held in 2021 in Tokyo, Japan. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) is responsible for organising the Games and for overseeing the host city's preparations. The tradition of awarding medals began in 1904; in each Olympic event, gold medals are awarded for first place, silver medals for second place, and bronze medals for third place. The Winter Olympic Games were created out of the success of the Summer Olympic Games, which are regarded as the largest and most prestigious multi-sport international event in the world.

The Summer Olympics have increased in scope from a 42-event competition programme in 1896 with fewer than 250 male competitors from 14 different nations, to 339 events in 2021 with 11,420 competitors (almost half of whom were women) from 206 nations. The Games have been held in nineteen different countries over five continents: four times in the United States (1904, 1932, 1984, and 1996); three times in Great Britain (1908, 1948, and 2012); twice each in Greece (1896 and 2004), France (1900 and 1924), Germany (1936 and 1972), Australia (1956 and 2000), and Japan (1964 and 2020); and once each in Sweden (1912), Belgium (1920), the Netherlands (1928), Finland (1952), Italy (1960), Mexico (1968), Canada (1976), the Soviet Union (1980), South Korea (1988), Spain (1992), China (2008), and Brazil (2016).

London was the first city to host the Summer Olympic Games three times. As of 2022[update], Paris, Los Angeles, Athens and Tokyo have each hosted twice; Paris will host for the third time in 2024, followed by Los Angeles which will host the Games in 2028.[1] Only five countries have participated in every Summer Olympic Games: Australia, France, Great Britain, Greece, and Switzerland. Great Britain is the only country to have won a gold medal at every edition of the Games. The United States leads the all-time medal count at the Summer Olympics, and has topped the medal table on 18 separate occasionsfollowed by the USSR (six times), and France, Great Britain, Germany, China, and the ex-Soviet 'Unified Team' (once each).

The United States hosted the Summer Olympic Games four times: the 1904 Games were held in St. Louis, Missouri; the 1932 and 1984 Games were both held in Los Angeles, California, and the 1996 Games were held in Atlanta, Georgia. The 2028 Games in Los Angeles will mark the fifth occasion on which the Summer Games have been hosted by the U.S.

In 2012, Great Britain hosted its third Summer Olympic Games in London, which became the first city ever to have hosted the Summer Olympic Games three times. The cities of Los Angeles, Paris, and Athens (excluding 1906) have each hosted two Summer Olympic Games. In 2024, France will host its third Summer Olympic Games in its capital, making Paris the second city ever to have hosted three Summer Olympics. And in 2028, Los Angeles will in turn become the third city ever to have hosted the Games three times.

Australia, France, Germany, Greece and Japan all hosted the Summer Olympic Games twice (with France and Australia planned to host in 2024 and 2032, respectively, taking both countries to three each). Tokyo, Japan, hosted the 2020 Games and became the first city outside the predominantly English-speaking and European nations to have hosted the Summer Olympics twice, having already hosted the Games in 1964;[2] it is also the largest city ever to have hosted, having grown considerably since 1964. The other countries to have hosted the Summer Olympics are Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Finland, Italy, Mexico, Netherlands, South Korea, Soviet Union, Spain, and Sweden, with each of these countries having hosted the Summer Games on one occasion.

Asia has hosted the Summer Olympics four times: in Tokyo (1964 and 2020), Seoul (1988), and Beijing (2008).

The 2016 Games in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, were the first Summer Olympics to be held in South America and the first that was held completely during the local "winter" season. The only two countries in the Southern Hemisphere to have hosted the Summer Olympics have been Australia (1956, 2000, and upcoming 2032) and Brazil (2016), with Africa having yet to host any Summer Olympics.

Stockholm, Sweden, has hosted events at two Summer Olympics, having been sole host of the 1912 Games, and hosting the equestrian events at the 1956 Summer Olympics (which they are credited as jointly hosting with Melbourne, Australia).[3] Amsterdam, Netherlands, has also hosted events at two Summer Olympic Games, having been sole host of the 1928 Games and previously hosting two of the sailing races at the 1920 Summer Olympics. At the 2008 Summer Olympics, Hong Kong provided the venues for the equestrian events, which took place in Sha Tin and Kwu Tung.

The International Olympic Committee was founded in 1894 when Pierre de Coubertin, a French pedagogue and historian, sought to promote international understanding through sporting competition. The first edition of The Olympic Games was held in Athens in 1896 and attracted just 245 competitors, of whom more than 200 were Greek, and only 14 countries were represented. Nevertheless, no international events of this magnitude had been organised before. Female athletes were not allowed to compete, though one woman, Stamata Revithi, ran the marathon course on her own, saying "If the committee doesn't let me compete I will go after them regardless".[4]

The 1896 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the Olympiad, was an international multi-sport event which was celebrated in Athens, Greece, from 6 to 15 April 1896. It was the first Olympic Games held in the Modern era. About 100,000 people attended for the opening of the games. The athletes came from 14 nations, with most coming from Greece. Although Greece had the most athletes, the U.S. finished with the most champions. 11 Americans placed first in their events vs. the 10 from Greece.[5] Ancient Greece was the birthplace of the Olympic Games, consequently Athens was perceived to be an appropriate choice to stage the inaugural modern Games. It was unanimously chosen as the host city during a congress organised by Pierre de Coubertin in Paris, on 23 June 1894. The IOC was also established during this congress.

Despite many obstacles and setbacks, the 1896 Olympics were regarded as a great success. The Games had the largest international participation of any sporting event to that date. Panathinaiko Stadium, the first big stadium in the modern world, overflowed with the largest crowd ever to watch a sporting event.[6] The highlight for the Greeks was the marathon victory by their compatriot Spiridon Louis, a water carrier. He won in 2 hours 58 minutes and 50 seconds, setting off wild celebrations at the stadium. The most successful competitor was German wrestler and gymnast Carl Schuhmann, who won four gold medals.

Greek officials and the public were enthusiastic about the experience of hosting an Olympic Games. This feeling was shared by many of the athletes, who even demanded that Athens be the permanent Olympic host city. The IOC intended for subsequent Games to be rotated to various host cities around the world. The second Olympics was held in Paris.[7]

Four years later the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris attracted more than four times as many athletes, including 20 women, who were allowed to officially compete for the first time, in croquet, golf, sailing, and tennis. The Games were integrated with the Paris World's Fair and lasted over 5 months. It has been disputed which exact events were Olympic, as some events were for professionals, some had restricted eligibility, and others lacked international competitors.

Tensions caused by the RussoJapanese War and the difficulty of getting to St. Louis may have contributed to the fact that very few top-ranked athletes from outside the US and Canada took part in the 1904 Games.[8]

The "Second International Olympic Games in Athens", as they were called at the time, were held in 1906.[9] The IOC does not currently recognise these games as being official Olympic Games, although many historians do and credit the 1906 games with preventing the demise of the Olympics. The 1906 Athens games were the first of an alternating series of games to be held in Athens in even non-Olympic years, but the series failed to materialise. The games were more successful than the 1900 and 1904 games, with over 850 athletes competing, and contributed positively to the success of future games.

The 1908 London Games saw numbers rise again, as well as the first running of the marathon over its now-standard distance of 42.195 km (26 miles 385 yards). The first Olympic Marathon in 1896 (a male-only race) was raced at a distance of 40 km (24 miles 85 yards). The new marathon distance was chosen to ensure that the race finished in front of the box occupied by the British royal family. Thus the marathon had been 40km (24.9mi) for the first games in 1896, but was subsequently varied by up to 2km (1.2mi) due to local conditions such as street and stadium layout. At the six Olympic games between 1900 and 1920, the marathon was raced over six distances. The Games saw Great Britain winning 146 medals, 99 more than second-placed Americans, its best result to this day.

At the end of the 1908 marathon, the Italian runner Dorando Pietri was first to enter the stadium, but he was clearly in distress and collapsed of exhaustion before he could complete the event. He was helped over the finish line by concerned race officials and later disqualified for that. As compensation for the missing medal, Queen Alexandra gave Pietri a gilded silver cup. Arthur Conan Doyle wrote a special report about the race in the Daily Mail.[10]

The Games continued to grow, attracting 2,504 competitors, to Stockholm in 1912, including the great all-rounder Jim Thorpe, who won both the decathlon and pentathlon. Thorpe had previously played a few games of baseball for a fee, and saw his medals stripped for this 'breach' of amateurism after complaints from Avery Brundage. They were reinstated in 1983, 30 years after his death. The Games at Stockholm were the first to fulfil Pierre de Coubertin's original idea. For the first time since the Games started in 1896, all five inhabited continents were represented with athletes competing in the same stadium.

The scheduled 1916 Summer Olympics were cancelled following the onset of World War I.

The 1920 Antwerp games in war-ravaged Belgium were a subdued affair, but again drew a record number of competitors. This record only stood until 1924, when the Paris Games involved 3,000 competitors, the greatest of whom was Finnish runner Paavo Nurmi. The "Flying Finn" won three team gold medals and the individual 1,500 and 5,000 meter runs, the latter two on the same day.[11]

The 1928 Amsterdam games was notable for being the first games which allowed females to compete at track & field athletics, and benefited greatly from the general prosperity of the times alongside the first appearance of sponsorship of the games, from the Coca-Cola Company. The 1928 games saw the introduction of a standard medal design with the IOC choosing Giuseppe Cassioli's depiction of Greek goddess Nike and a winner being carried by a crowd of people. This design was used up until 1972.[citation needed]

The 1932 Los Angeles games were affected by the Great Depression, which contributed to the low number of competitors.

The 1936 Berlin Games were seen by the German government as a golden opportunity to promote their ideology. The ruling Nazi Party commissioned film-maker Leni Riefenstahl to film the games. The result, Olympia, was widely considered to be a masterpiece, despite Hitler's theories of Aryan racial superiority being repeatedly shown up by "non-Aryan" athletes. In particular, African-American sprinter and long jumper Jesse Owens won four gold medals. The 1936 Berlin Games also saw the introduction of the Torch Relay.[12]

Due to World War II, the 1940 Games (due to be held in Tokyo and temporarily relocated to Helsinki upon the outbreak of war) were cancelled. The 1944 Games were due to be held in London but were also cancelled; instead, London hosted the first games after the end of the war, in 1948.

The first post-war Games were held in 1948 in London, with both Germany and Japan excluded.[13] Dutch sprinter Fanny Blankers-Koen won four gold medals on the track, emulating Owens' achievement in Berlin.[14]

At the 1952 Helsinki Games, the USSR team competed for the first time and quickly emerged as one of the dominant teams, finishing second in the number of gold and overall medals won. Their immediate success might be explained by the advent of the state-sponsored "full-time amateur athlete". The USSR entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full-time basis, hence violating amateur rules.[15][16] Finland made a legend of an amiable Czechoslovak Army lieutenant named Emil Ztopek, who was intent on improving on his single gold and silver medals from 1948. Having first won both the 10,000- and 5,000-meter races, he also entered the marathon, despite having never previously raced at that distance. Pacing himself by chatting with the other race leaders, Ztopek led from about halfway, slowly dropping the remaining contenders to win by two and a half minutes, and completed a trio of wins.[17]

The 1956 Melbourne Games were largely successful, with the exception of a water polo match between Hungary and the Soviet Union, which ended in a pitched battle between the teams on account of the Soviet invasion of Hungary.[18] The equestrian events were held in Stockholm due to a foot-and-mouth disease outbreak in Britain at the time and the strict quarantine laws of Australia.

At the 1960 Rome Games, a young light-heavyweight boxer named Cassius Clay, later known as Muhammad Ali, arrived on the scene. Ali would later throw his gold medal away in disgust after being refused service in a whites-only restaurant in his home town of Louisville, Kentucky.[19] He was awarded a new medal 36 years later at the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta.[20] Other notable performers in 1960 included Wilma Rudolph, a gold medallist in the 100meters, 200meters, and 4100 meters relay events.[21]

The 1964 Tokyo Games were the first to be broadcast worldwide on television, enabled by the recent advent of communication satellites.[22] These Games marked a turning point in the global visibility and popularity of the Olympics and are credited for heralding the modern age of telecommunications. Judo debuted as an official sport, and Dutch judoka Anton Geesink caused a stir when he won the final of the open weight division, defeating Akio Kaminaga in front of his home crowd.[23]

Performances at the 1968 Games in Mexico City were affected by the altitude of the host city.[24] These Games introduced the now-universal Fosbury flop, a technique which won American high jumper Dick Fosbury the gold medal.[25] In the medal award ceremony for the men's 200-meter race, black American athletes Tommie Smith (gold medal winner) and John Carlos (bronze medal winner) took a stand for civil rights by raising their black-gloved fists and wearing black socks in lieu of shoes.[26] The two athletes were subsequently expelled from the Games by the IOC. Vra slavsk, in protest against the 1968 Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia, and the controversial decision by the judges on the balance beam and floor, turned her head down and away from the Soviet flag while the national anthem was played during the medal ceremony.[27] She returned home as a heroine of the Czechoslovak people but was made an outcast by the Soviet-dominated government.

Politics again intervened at the 1972 Games in Munich, but this time with lethal consequences. A Palestinian terrorist group named Black September invaded the Olympic village and broke into the apartment of the Israeli delegation. They killed two Israelis and held nine others as hostages, demanding that Israel release numerous prisoners. When the Israeli government refused the terrorists' demands, the situation developed into a tense stand-off while negotiations continued. Eventually, the captors, still holding their hostages, were offered safe passage and taken to an airport, where they were ambushed by German security forces. In the ensuing firefight, 15 people were killed, including the nine captive Israeli athletes and five of the terrorists.[28] After much debate, the decision was taken to continue the Games, but the proceedings were understandably dominated by these events.[29] Some memorable athletic achievements did occur during these Games, notably the winning of a then-record seven gold medals by United States swimmer Mark Spitz, Finland's Lasse Virn taking back-to-back gold medals in the 5,000 meters and 10,000 meters, and the winning of three gold medals by Soviet gymnastic star Olga Korbut, who achieved a historic backflip off the high bar.

There was no such tragedy at the 1976 Montreal Games, but bad planning and fraud led to the cost of these Games far exceeding the budget. Costing $1.5billion (equivalent to $6.83billion in 2021),[30][31] the 1976 Summer Games were the most expensive in Olympic history (until the 2014 Winter Olympics) and it seemed, for a time, that the Olympics might no longer be a viable financial proposition. In retrospect, it is believed that contractors (suspected of being members of the Montreal Mafia) skimmed large sums of money from all levels of contracts while also profiting from the substitution of cheaper building materials of lesser quality, which may have contributed to the delays, poor construction, and excessive costs. In 1988, one such contractor, Giuseppe Zappia "was cleared of fraud charges that resulted from his work on Olympic facilities after two key witnesses died before testifying at his trial".[32] The 1976 Games were boycotted by many African nations as a protest against a recent tour of apartheid-run South Africa by the New Zealand national rugby union team.[33] The Romanian gymnast Nadia Comneci made history when she won the women's individual all-around gold medal with two of four possible perfect scores. She won two other individual events, with two perfect scores in the balance beam and all perfect scores in the uneven bars.[34] Lasse Virn repeated his double gold in the 5,000 and 10,000 meters, making him the first athlete to ever win the distance double twice.[35]

Following the Soviet Union's 1979 invasion of Afghanistan, 66 nations, including the United States, Canada, West Germany, and Japan, boycotted the 1980 games held in Moscow. Eighty nations were represented at the Moscow Games the smallest number since 1956. The boycott contributed to the 1980 Games being a less publicised and less competitive affair, which was dominated by the host country.

In 1984 the Soviet Union and 13 Soviet allies reciprocated by boycotting the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Romania and Yugoslavia, notably are the only two countries from the Eastern Bloc that did attend the 1984 Olympics. These games were perhaps the first games of a new era to make a profit. Although a boycott led by the Soviet Union depleted the field in certain sports, 140 National Olympic Committees took part, which was a record at the time.[36] The Games were also the first time mainland China (People's Republic) participated.

According to British journalist Andrew Jennings, a KGB colonel stated that the agency's officers had posed as anti-doping authorities from the IOC to undermine doping tests and that Soviet athletes were "rescued with [these] tremendous efforts".[37] On the topic of the 1980 Summer Olympics, a 1989 Australian study said "There is hardly a medal winner at the Moscow Games, certainly not a gold medal winner, who is not on one sort of drug or another: usually several kinds. The Moscow Games might as well have been called the Chemists' Games."[37]

Documents obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Dated prior to the country's decision to boycott the Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the programme, along with suggestions for further enhancements.[38] The communication, directed to the Soviet Union's head of track and field, was prepared by Dr. Sergei Portugalov of the Institute for Physical Culture. Portugalov was also one of the main figures involved in the implementation of the Russian doping programme prior to the 2016 Summer Olympics.[38]

The 1988 games, in Seoul, was very well planned but the games were tainted when many of the athletes, most notably men's 100 metres winner Ben Johnson, failed mandatory drug tests. Despite splendid drug-free performances by many individuals, the number of people who failed screenings for performance-enhancing chemicals overshadowed the games.

The 1992 Barcelona Games featured the admittance of players from one of the North American top leagues, the NBA, exemplified by but not limited to US basketball's "Dream Team". The 1992 games also saw the reintroduction to the Games of several smaller European states which had been incorporated into the Soviet Union since World War II. At these games, gymnast Vitaly Scherbo set an inaugural medal record of five individual gold medals at a Summer Olympics, and equaled the inaugural record set by Eric Heiden at the 1980 Winter Olympics.

By then the process of choosing a location for the Games had become a commercial concern; there were widespread allegations of corruption potentially affecting the IOC's decision process.

At the Atlanta 1996 Summer Olympics, the highlight was 200 meters runner Michael Johnson annihilating the world record in front of a home crowd. Canadians savoured Donovan Bailey's recording gold medal run in the 100-meter dash. This was popularly felt to be an appropriate recompense for the previous national disgrace involving Ben Johnson. There were also emotional scenes, such as when Muhammad Ali, clearly affected by Parkinson's disease, lit the Olympic torch and received a replacement medal for the one he had discarded in 1960. The latter event took place in the basketball arena. The atmosphere at the Games was marred, however, when a bomb exploded during the celebration in Centennial Olympic Park. In June 2003, the principal suspect in this bombing, Eric Robert Rudolph, was arrested.

The 2000 Summer Olympics, held in Sydney, Australia, showcased individual performances by locals favorites Ian Thorpe in the pool and Cathy Freeman, an Indigenous Australian whose triumph in the 400 meters united a packed stadium., Briton Steve Redgrave who won a rowing gold medal in an unprecedented fifth consecutive Olympics, and Eric "the Eel" Moussambani, a swimmer from Equatorial Guinea, received wide media coverage when he completed the 100 meter freestyle swim in by far the slowest time in Olympic history. He nevertheless won the heat as both his opponents had been disqualified for false starts. His female compatriot Paula Barila Bolopa also received media attention for her record-slow and struggling but courageous performance. The Sydney Games also saw the first appearance of a joint North and South Korean contingent at the opening ceremonies, though they competed in all events as different teams. Controversy occurred in the Women's Artistic Gymnastics when the vaulting horse was set to the wrong height during the All-Around Competition.

In 2004, the Olympic Games returned to their birthplace in Athens, Greece. At least $7.2billion was spent on the 2004 Games, including $1.5billion on security. Michael Phelps won his first Olympic medals, tallying six gold and two bronze medals. Pyrros Dimas, winning a bronze medal, became the most decorated weightlifter of all time with four Olympic medals, three gold and one bronze. Although unfounded reports of potential terrorism drove crowds away from the preliminary competitions at the first weekend of the Olympics (1415August 2004), attendance picked up as the Games progressed. A third of the tickets failed to sell,[39] but ticket sales still topped figures from the Seoul and Barcelona Olympics (1988 and 1992).[citation needed] IOC President Jacques Rogge characterised Greece's organisation as outstanding and its security precautions as flawless.[40] All 202 NOCs participated at the Athens Games with over 11,000 participants.

The 2008 Summer Olympics was held in Beijing, People's Republic of China. Several new events were held, including the new discipline of BMX for both men and women. Women competed in the steeplechase for the first time. The fencing programme was expanded to include all six events for both men and women; previously, women had not been able to compete in team foil or sabre events, although women's team pe and men's team foil were dropped for these Games. Marathon swimming events were added, over the distance of 10km (6.2mi). Also, the doubles events in table tennis were replaced by team events.[41] American swimmer Michael Phelps set a record for gold medals at a single Games with eight, and tied the record of most gold medals by a single competitor previously held by both Eric Heiden and Vitaly Scherbo. Another notable star of the Games was Jamaican sprinter Usain Bolt, who became the first male athlete ever to set world records in the finals of both the 100 and 200metres in the same Games. Equestrian events were held in Hong Kong.

London held the 2012 Summer Olympics, becoming the first city to host the Olympic Games three times. In his closing address, Jacques Rogge described the Games as "Happy and glorious". The host nation won 29 gold medals, the best haul for Great Britain since the 1908 Games in London. The United States returned to the top of the medal table after China dominated in 2008. The IOC had removed baseball and softball from the 2012 programme. The London Games were successful on a commercial level because they were the first in history to completely sell out every ticket, with as many as 1million applications for 40,000 tickets for both the Opening Ceremony and the 100m Men's Sprint Final. Such was the demand for tickets to all levels of each event that there was controversy over seats being set aside for sponsors and National Delegations which went unused in the early days. A system of reallocation was put in place so the empty seats were filled throughout the Games.

Rio de Janeiro in Brazil hosted the 2016 Summer Olympics, becoming the first South American city to host the Olympics, the second Olympic host city in Latin America, after Mexico City in 1968, as well as the third city in the Southern Hemisphere to host the Olympics after Melbourne, Australia, in 1956 and Sydney, Australia, in 2000. The preparation for these Games was overshadowed by controversies, including political instability and an economic crisis in the host country, health and safety concerns surrounding the Zika virus, and significant pollution in the Guanabara Bay. However, these concerns were superseded by a state-sponsored doping scandal involving Russian athletes at the Winter Olympics held two years earlier, which affected the participation of its athletes in these Games.[42]

The 2020 Summer Olympics were originally scheduled to take place from 24July to 9August 2020 in Tokyo, Japan. The city was the fifth in history to host the Games twice and the first Asian city to have this title. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the then-Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, the IOC and the Tokyo Organising Committee announced that the 2020 Games were to be delayed until 2021, marking the first time that the Olympic Games have been postponed. Unlike previous Olympics, these Games took place without spectators due to concerns over COVID-19 and a state of emergency imposed in the host city.[43][44][45] Nevertheless, the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games featured many memorable moments and feats of technical excellence. One star of the games, the US gymnast Simone Biles, gracefully bowed out to focus on her mental health, but later returned to claim an individual bronze medal. Norway's Karsten Warholm smashed his own world record in the 400m hurdles.

There has been a total of 42 sports, spanning 55 disciplines, included in the Olympic programme at one point or another in the history of the Games. The schedule has comprised 33 sports for recent Summer Olympics (2020); the 2012 Games featured 26 sports because of the removal of baseball and softball.[46]

The various Olympic Sports federations are grouped under a common umbrella association, called the Association of Summer Olympic International Federations (ASOIF).

Current sportNo longer included

Qualification rules for each of the Olympic sports are set by the International Sports Federation (IF) that governs that sport's international competition.[47]

For individual sports, competitors typically qualify by attaining a certain place in a major international event or on the IF's ranking list. There is a general rule that a maximum of three individual athletes may represent each nation per competition. National Olympic Committees (NOCs) may enter a limited number of qualified competitors in each event, and the NOC decides which qualified competitors to select as representatives in each event if more have attained the benchmark than can be entered.[48]

Nations most often qualify teams for team sports through continental qualifying tournaments, in which each continental association is given a certain number of spots in the Olympic tournament. Each nation may be represented by no more than one team per competition; a team consists of just two people in some sports.

The IOC divides Summer Olympic sports into five categories (A E) based on popularity, gauged by six criteria: television viewing figures (40%), internet popularity (20%), public surveys (15%), ticket requests (10%), press coverage (10%), and number of national federations (5%). The category of a sport determines the share of Olympic revenue received by that sport's International Federation.[49][50] Sports that were new to the 2016 Olympics (rugby and golf) have been placed in Category E.

The current categories are:

a Aquatics encompasses artistic swimming, diving, swimming, and water polo.

The table below uses official data provided by the IOC.

Defunct nation

Number of occurrences

The IOC has never decided which events of the early Games were "Olympic" and which were not.[51] The founder of the modern Olympics, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, ceded that determination to the organisers of those Games.

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Summer Olympic Games - Wikipedia

What are the Olympics? (with pictures) – Sports & Nobbies

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The Olympics or Olympic Games are international sporting events which are meant to foster cooperation and friendship between the nations of the world while also celebrating athleticism. There are two main components to the Olympics: the Summer Games and the Winter Games. Both games last several weeks, combining scores of events, and they are held every four years. As of 1992, they are staggered so that an Olympic Games takes place every two years. By convention, the host of the Olympics changes with each Olympic Games, theoretically allowing every nation to have a chance to host the event, although the balance of hosts has been heavily skewed to the Northern Hemisphere historically.

The Olympic Games have ancient origins. In Ancient Greece, a pan-Hellenic games was held at Olympia every four years, allowing athletes to demonstrate their skills, along with poets, artists, and playwrights. The ancient Olympics also had a strong religious aspect, with attendees holding sacrifices and religious services throughout the games. In 393 BCE, the Roman Empire outlawed the Olympic Games, and it was not seen again in recognizable form for over 2000 years.

As early as the 1700s, several sporting associations held regional Olympiads, and in the mid-1800s, Greece hosted an Olympiad which featured competitors from Greece and the Ottoman Empire. In 1896, the Olympic Games experienced an official revival, thanks to the efforts of Pierre Fredy, Baron of Coubertin, who established many of the conventions and infrastructure which live on in the modern Olympics, including the motto, Citius, Altius, Fortius, which means "Swifter, Higher, Stronger." Baron Coubertin also created the Olympic logo, a stylized design of five rings.

The Olympic Games are meant to symbolize peace, although three games (1916, 1940, and 1944) have been canceled due to war. They are also supposed to be apolitical, although this goal has not always been achieved; several Cold War nations boycotted each other during the Olympics, for example, and some nations have staged strategic Olympic boycotts to protest various activities by other competing nations.

The organizations which collectively work together to organize the Olympics are known as the Olympic Movement, and they include the International Olympic Committee, the International Federations which determine standards for various sports, and the National Olympic Committees of competing nations. Athletes who compete in the Olympics are widely considered to be among the best in the world; just being able to compete is a great honor, and taking a medal is a credit both to the individual athlete and the nation which he or she represents.

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What are the Olympics? (with pictures) - Sports & Nobbies

List of Olympic Games host cities – Wikipedia

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This is a list of host cities of the Olympic Games, both summer and winter, since the modern Olympics began in 1896. Since then, summer and winter games have usually celebrated a four-year period known as an Olympiad; summer and winter games normally held in staggered even years. There have been 29 Summer Olympic Games held in 23 cities, and 24 Winter Olympic Games held in 21 cities. In addition, three summer and two winter editions of the games were scheduled to take place but later cancelled due to war: Berlin (summer) in 1916; SapporoGarmisch-Partenkirchen (winter) and TokyoHelsinki (summer) in 1940; and Cortina d'Ampezzo (winter) and London (summer) in 1944. The 1906 Intercalated Olympics were officially sanctioned and held in Athens. However, in 1949, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) decided to unrecognize the 1906 Games.[1][2] The 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo were postponed for the first time in the Olympics history to summer 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic with the 2022 Winter Olympics being held roughly six months later in Beijing.[3][4]

Four cities have been chosen by the IOC to host upcoming Olympic Games: Paris for the 2024 Summer Olympics, MilanCortina d'Ampezzo for the 2026 Winter Olympics, Los Angeles for the 2028 Summer Olympics, and Brisbane for the 2032 Summer Olympics.

In 2022, Beijing became the first city that has held both the summer and the winter Olympic Games. Ten cities will have hosted the Olympic Games more than once: Athens (1896 and 2004 Summer Olympics), Paris (1900, 1924 and 2024 Summer Olympics), London (1908, 1948 and 2012 Summer Olympics), St. Moritz (1928 and 1948 Winter Olympics), Lake Placid (1932 and 1980 Winter Olympics), Los Angeles (1932, 1984 and 2028 Summer Olympics), Cortina d'Ampezzo (1956 and 2026 Winter Olympics), Innsbruck (1964 and 1976 Winter Olympics), Tokyo (1964 and 2020 Summer Olympics) and Beijing (2008 Summer Olympics and 2022 Winter Olympics). Stockholm hosted the 1912 Summer Olympics and the equestrian portion of the 1956 Summer Olympics. London became the first city to have hosted three Games with the 2012 Summer Olympics. Paris will become the second city to do this with the 2024 Summer Olympics, followed by Los Angeles as the third in 2028.

The United States has hosted a total of eight Olympic Games, more than any other country, followed by France with five and Japan with four editions. The United Kingdom, Canada, Italy and Germany have each hosted three Games.

The Games have primarily been hosted in the regions of Europe (30 editions) and the Americas (13 editions); eight Games have been hosted in Asia and two have been hosted in Oceania. Rio de Janeiro became South America's first Olympic host city with the 2016 Summer Olympics. Africa has yet to host an Olympic Games. Other major geographic regions which have never hosted the Olympics include the Middle East, Central Asia, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, the South Pacific, Central America and the Caribbean. Between the first Winter Olympics in 1924 and the last ones to be held in the same year as the Summer Olympics in 1992, the Summer and Winter games took place in the same country three times.

Host cities are selected by the IOC membership, usually seven years in advance.[5] The selection process lasts approximately two years. In the first stage, any city in the world may submit an application to become a host city. After 10 months, the Executive Board of the IOC decides which applicant cities will become official candidates as based on the recommendation of a working group that reviews the applications. In a second stage, the candidate cities are investigated thoroughly by an Evaluation Commission, which then submits a final short list of cities to be considered for selection. The host city is then chosen by vote of the IOC session, a general meeting of IOC members.[6]

Cancelled Games Postponed to the following year

5 times

4 times (no entry)

3 times

2 times

1 time

Never held games

4 times

3 times

2 times

1 time

Never held games

First year

Last year

SummerOlympics

WinterOlympics

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List of Olympic Games host cities - Wikipedia

Mexico launches bid for 2036 Summer Games – Reuters

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  1. Mexico launches bid for 2036 Summer Games  Reuters
  2. Mexico Bids To Host 2036 Olympics  Barron's
  3. Mexican bid launched to host 2036 Olympics  RTE.ie
  4. Mexico launches bid for 2036 Olympics  The West Australian
  5. Olympics: Mexico announces bid to host 2036 Games, 68 years after it last held the event  Scroll.in
  6. View Full Coverage on Google News

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Mexico launches bid for 2036 Summer Games - Reuters

Understanding cloud computing – Red Hat

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Theres no single, perfect cloud architecture or infrastructure. All clouds require operating systemslike Linuxbut the cloud infrastructure can include a variety of bare-metal, virtualization, or container software that abstract, pool, and share scalable resources across a network. This is why clouds are best defined by what they do rather than what theyre made of. Youve created a cloud if youve set up an IT system that:

You can build a private cloud on your own or use prepackaged cloud infrastructure like OpenStack, and there are thousands of cloud service providers all over the world. Here are some of the most popular:

Creating a hybrid cloud strategy requires some degree of workload portability, orchestration, and management. Application programming interfaces (APIs) and virtual private networks (VPNs) have been the standard ways to create these connections. Many of the major cloud providers even give customers a preconfigured VPN as part of their subscription packages:

Another way of creating a hybrid cloud is to simply run the same operating system in every environment and build containerplatform-based, cloud-native apps that are managed by a universal orchestration engine like Kubernetes. The operating system abstracts all the hardware while the management platform abstracts all the apps. So you deploy almost any app in almost any environment without retooling the app, retraining people, splitting management, or sacrificing security.

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Understanding cloud computing - Red Hat

Cloud Computing | HHS.gov

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Introduction

With the proliferation and widespread adoption of cloud computing solutions, HIPAA covered entities and business associates are questioning whether and how they can take advantage of cloud computing while complying with regulations protecting the privacy and security of electronic protected health information (ePHI). This guidance assists such entities, including cloud services providers (CSPs), in understanding their HIPAA obligations.

Cloud computing takes many forms. This guidance focuses on cloud resources offered by a CSP that is an entity legally separate from the covered entity or business associate considering the use of its services. CSPs generally offer online access to shared computing resources with varying levels of functionality depending on the users requirements, ranging from mere data storage to complete software solutions (e.g., an electronic medical record system), platforms to simplify the ability of application developers to create new products, and entire computing infrastructure for software programmers to deploy and test programs. Common cloud services are on-demand internet access to computing (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications) services. We encourage covered entities and business associates seeking information about types of cloud computing services and technical arrangement options to consult a resource offered by the National Institute of Standards and Technology; SP 800-145, The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing.[1]

The HIPAA Privacy, Security, and Breach Notification Rules (the HIPAA Rules) establish important protections for individually identifiable health information (called protected health information or PHI when created, received, maintained, or transmitted by a HIPAA covered entity or business associate), including limitations on uses and disclosures of such information, safeguards against inappropriate uses and disclosures, and individuals rights with respect to their health information. Covered entities and business associates must comply with the applicable provisions of the HIPAA Rules. A covered entity is a health plan, a health care clearinghouse, or a health care provider who conducts certain billing and payment related transactions electronically. A business associate is an entity or person, other than a member of the workforce of a covered entity, that performs functions or activities on behalf of, or provides certain services to, a covered entity that involve creating, receiving, maintaining, or transmitting PHI. A business associate also is any subcontractor that creates, receives, maintains, or transmits PHI on behalf of another business associate.

When a covered entity engages the services of a CSP to create, receive, maintain, or transmit ePHI (such as to process and/or store ePHI), on its behalf, the CSP is a business associate under HIPAA. Further, when a business associate subcontracts with a CSP to create, receive, maintain, or transmit ePHI on its behalf, the CSP subcontractor itself is a business associate. This is true even if the CSP processes or stores only encrypted ePHI and lacks an encryption key for the data. Lacking an encryption key does not exempt a CSP from business associate status and obligations under the HIPAA Rules. As a result, the covered entity (or business associate) and the CSP must enter into a HIPAA-compliant business associate agreement (BAA), and the CSP is both contractually liable for meeting the terms of the BAA and directly liable for compliance with the applicable requirements of the HIPAA Rules.

This guidance presents key questions and answers to assist HIPAA regulated CSPs and their customers in understanding their responsibilities under the HIPAA Rules when they create, receive, maintain or transmit ePHI using cloud products and services.

Yes, provided the covered entity or business associate enters into a HIPAA-compliant business associate contract or agreement (BAA) with the CSP that will be creating, receiving, maintaining, or transmitting electronic protected health information (ePHI) on its behalf, and otherwise complies with the HIPAA Rules. Among other things, the BAA establishes the permitted and required uses and disclosures of ePHI by the business associate performing activities or services for the covered entity or business associate, based on the relationship between the parties and the activities or services being performed by the business associate. The BAA also contractually requires the business associate to appropriately safeguard the ePHI, including implementing the requirements of the Security Rule. OCR has created guidance on the elements of BAAs[2]

A covered entity (or business associate) that engages a CSP should understand the cloud computing environment or solution offered by a particular CSP so that the covered entity (or business associate) can appropriately conduct its own risk analysis and establish risk management policies, as well as enter into appropriate BAAs. See 45 CFR 164.308(a)(1)(ii)(A); 164.308(a)(1)(ii)(B); and 164.502. Both covered entities and business associates must conduct risk analyses to identify and assess potential threats and vulnerabilities to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of all ePHI they create, receive, maintain, or transmit. For example, while a covered entity or business associate may use cloud-based services of any configuration (public, hybrid, private, etc.),[3] provided it enters into a BAA with the CSP, the type of cloud configuration to be used may affect the risk analysis and risk management plans of all parties and the resultant provisions of the BAA.

In addition, a Service Level Agreement (SLA)[4] is commonly used to address more specific business expectations between the CSP and its customer, which also may be relevant to HIPAA compliance. For example, SLAs can include provisions that address such HIPAA concerns as:

If a covered entity or business associate enters into a SLA with a CSP, it should ensure that the terms of the SLA are consistent with the BAA and the HIPAA Rules. For example, the covered entity or business associate should ensure that the terms of the SLA and BAA with the CSP do not prevent the entity from accessing its ePHI in violation of 45 CFR 164.308(b)(3), 164.502(e)(2), and 164.504(e)(1).[6]

In addition to its contractual obligations, the CSP, as a business associate, has regulatory obligations and is directly liable under the HIPAA Rules if it makes uses and disclosures of PHI that are not authorized by its contract, required by law, or permitted by the Privacy Rule. A CSP, as a business associate, also is directly liable if it fails to safeguard ePHI in accordance with the Security Rule, or fails to notify the covered entity or business associate of the discovery of a breach of unsecured PHI in compliance with the Breach Notification Rule.

For more information about the Security Rule, see OCR and ONC tools for small entities[7] and OCR guidance on SR compliance.[8]

Yes, because the CSP receives and maintains (e.g., to process and/or store) electronic protected health information (ePHI) for a covered entity or another business associate. Lacking an encryption key for the encrypted data it receives and maintains does not exempt a CSP from business associate status and associated obligations under the HIPAA Rules. An entity that maintains ePHI on behalf of a covered entity (or another business associate) is a business associate, even if the entity cannot actually view the ePHI.[9] Thus, a CSP that maintains encrypted ePHI on behalf a covered entity (or another business associate) is a business associate, even if it does not hold a decryption key [10] and therefore cannot view the information. For convenience purposes this guidance uses the term no-viewservices to describe the situation in which the CSP maintains encrypted ePHI on behalf of a covered entity (or another business associate) without having access to the decryption key.

While encryption protects ePHI by significantly reducing the risk of the information being viewed by unauthorized persons, such protections alone cannot adequately safeguard the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of ePHI as required by the Security Rule. Encryption does not maintain the integrity and availability of the ePHI, such as ensuring that the information is not corrupted by malware, or ensuring through contingency planning that the data remains available to authorized persons even during emergency or disaster situations. Further, encryption does not address other safeguards that are also important to maintaining confidentiality, such as administrative safeguards to analyze risks to the ePHI or physical safeguards for systems and servers that may house the ePHI.

As a business associate, a CSP providing no-view services is not exempt from any otherwise applicable requirements of the HIPAA Rules. However, the requirements of the Rules are flexible and scalable to take into account the no-view nature of the services provided by the CSP.

All CSPs that are business associates must comply with the applicable standards and implementation specifications of the Security Rule with respect to ePHI. However, in cases where a CSP is providing only no-view services to a covered entity (or business associate) customer, certain Security Rule requirements that apply to the ePHI maintained by the CSP may be satisfied for both parties through the actions of one of the parties. In particular, where only the customer controls who is able to view the ePHI maintained by the CSP, certain access controls, such as authentication or unique user identification, may be the responsibility of the customer, while others, such as encryption, may be the responsibility of the CSP business associate. Which access controls are to be implemented by the customer and which are to be implemented by the CSP may depend on the respective security risk management plans of the parties as well as the terms of the BAA. For example, if a customer implements its own reasonable and appropriate user authentication controls and agrees that the CSP providing no-view services need not implement additional procedures to authenticate (verify the identity of) a person or entity seeking access to ePHI, these Security Rule access control responsibilities would be met for both parties by the action of the customer.

However, as a business associate, the CSP is still responsible under the Security Rule for implementing other reasonable and appropriate controls to limit access to information systems that maintain customer ePHI. For example, even when the parties have agreed that the customer is responsible for authenticating access to ePHI, the CSP may still be required to implement appropriate internal controls to assure only authorized access to the administrative tools that manage the resources (e.g., storage, memory, network interfaces, CPUs) critical to the operation of its information systems. For example, a CSP that is a business associate needs to consider and address, as part of its risk analysis and risk management process, the risks of a malicious actor having unauthorized access to its systems administrative tools, which could impact system operations and impact the confidentiality, integrity and availability of the customers ePHI. CSPs should also consider the risks of using unpatched or obsolete administrative tools. The CSP and the customer should each confirm in writing, in either the BAA or other documents, how each party will address the Security Rule requirements.

Note that where the contractual agreements between a CSP and customer provide that the customer will control and implement certain security features of the cloud service consistent with the Security Rule, and the customer fails to do so, OCR will consider this factor as important and relevant during any investigation into compliance of either the customer or the CSP. A CSP is not responsible for the compliance failures that are attributable solely to the actions or inactions of the customer, as determined by the facts and circumstances of the particular case.

A business associate may only use and disclose PHI as permitted by its BAA and the Privacy Rule, or as otherwise required by law. While a CSP that provides only no-view services to a covered entity or business associate customer may not control who views the ePHI, the CSP still must ensure that it itself only uses and discloses the encrypted information as permitted by its BAA and the Privacy Rule, or as otherwise required by law. This includes, for example, ensuring the CSP does not impermissibly use the ePHI by blocking or terminating access by the customer to the ePHI.[11]

Further, a BAA must include provisions that require the business associate to, among other things, make available PHI as necessary for the covered entity to meet its obligations to provide individuals with their rights to access, amend, and receive an accounting of certain disclosures of PHI in compliance with 45 CFR 164.504(e)(2)(ii)(E)-(G). The BAA between a no-view CSP and a covered entity or business associate customer should describe in what manner the no-view CSP will meet these obligations for example, a CSP may agree in the BAA that it will make the ePHI available to the customer for the purpose of incorporating amendments to ePHI requested by the individual, but only the customer will make those amendments.

As a business associate, a CSP that offers only no-view services to a covered entity or business associate still must comply with the HIPAA breach notification requirements that apply to business associates. In particular, a business associate is responsible for notifying the covered entity (or the business associate with which it has contracted) of breaches of unsecured PHI. See 45 CFR 164.410. Unsecured PHI is PHI that has not been destroyed or is not encrypted at the levels specified in HHS Guidance to Render Unsecured Protected Health Information Unusable, Unreadable, or Indecipherable to Unauthorized Individuals [12] If the ePHI that has been breached is encrypted consistent with the HIPAA standards set forth in 45 CFR 164.402(2) and HHS Guidance [13] the incident falls within the breach safe harbor and the CSP business associate is not required to report the incident to its customer. However, if the ePHI is encrypted, but not at a level that meets the HIPAA standards or the decryption key was also breached, then the incident must be reported to its customer as a breach, unless one of the exceptions to the definition of breach applies. See 45 CFR 164.402. See also 45 CFR 164.410 for more information about breach notification obligations for business associates.

Generally, no. CSPs that provide cloud services to a covered entity or business associate that involve creating, receiving, or maintaining (e.g., to process and/or store) electronic protected health information (ePHI) meet the definition of a business associate, even if the CSP cannot view the ePHI because it is encrypted and the CSP does not have the decryption key.

As explained in previous guidance,[14] the conduit exception is limited to transmission-only services for PHI (whether in electronic or paper form), including any temporary storage of PHI incident to such transmission. Any access to PHI by a conduit is only transient in nature. In contrast, a CSP that maintains ePHI for the purpose of storing it will qualify as a business associate, and not a conduit, even if the CSP does not actually view the information, because the entity has more persistent access to the ePHI.

Further, where a CSP provides transmission services for a covered entity or business associate customer, in addition to maintaining ePHI for purposes of processing and/or storing the information, the CSP is still a business associate with respect to such transmission of ePHI. The conduit exception applies where the only services provided to a covered entity or business associate customer are for transmission of ePHI that do not involve any storage of the information other than on a temporary basis incident to the transmission service.

OCR does not endorse, certify, or recommend specific technology or products.

If a covered entity (or business associate) uses a CSP to maintain (e.g., to process or store) electronic protected health information (ePHI) without entering into a BAA with the CSP, the covered entity (or business associate) is in violation of the HIPAA Rules. 45 C.F.R 164.308(b)(1) and 164.502(e). OCR has entered into a resolution agreement and corrective action plan with a covered entity that OCR determined stored ePHI of over 3,000 individuals on a cloud-based server without entering into a BAA with the CSP.[15]

Further, a CSP that meets the definition of a business associate that is a CSP that creates, receives, maintains, or transmits PHI on behalf of a covered entity or another business associate must comply with all applicable provisions of the HIPAA Rules, regardless of whether it has executed a BAA with the entity using its services. See 78 Fed. Reg. 5565, 5598 (January 25, 2013). OCR recognizes that there may, however, be circumstances where a CSP may not have actual or constructive knowledge that a covered entity or another business associate is using its services to create, receive, maintain, or transmit ePHI. The HIPAA Rules provide an affirmative defense in cases where a CSP takes action to correct any non-compliance within 30 days (or such additional period as OCR may determine appropriate based on the nature and extent of the non-compliance) of the time that it knew or should have known of the violation (e.g., at the point the CSP knows or should have known that a covered entity or business associate customer is maintaining ePHI in its cloud). 45 CFR 160.410. This affirmative defense does not, however, apply in cases where the CSP was not aware of the violation due to its own willful neglect.

If a CSP becomes aware that it is maintaining ePHI, it must come into compliance with the HIPAA Rules, or securely return the ePHI to the customer or, if agreed to by the customer, securely destroy the ePHI. Once the CSP securely returns or destroys the ePHI (subject to arrangement with the customer), it is no longer a business associate. We recommend CSPs document these actions.

While a CSP maintains ePHI, the HIPAA Rules prohibit the CSP from using or disclosing the data in a manner that is inconsistent with the Rules.

Yes. The Security Rule at 45 CFR 164.308(a)(6)(ii) requires business associates to identify and respond to suspected or known security incidents; mitigate, to the extent practicable, harmful effects of security incidents that are known to the business associate; and document security incidents and their outcomes. In addition, the Security Rule at 45 CFR 164.314(a)(2)(i)(C) provides that a business associate agreement must require the business associate to report, to the covered entity or business associate whose electronic protected health information (ePHI) it maintains, any security incidents of which it becomes aware. A security incident under 45 CFR 164.304 means the attempted or successful unauthorized access, use, disclosure, modification, or destruction of information or interference with system operations in an information system. Thus, a business associate CSP must implement policies and procedures to address and document security incidents, and must report security incidents to its covered entity or business associate customer.

The Security Rule, however, is flexible and does not prescribe the level of detail, frequency, or format of reports of security incidents, which may be worked out between the parties to the business associate agreement (BAA). For example, the BAA may prescribe differing levels of detail, frequency, and formatting of reports based on the nature of the security incidents e.g., based on the level of threat or exploitation of vulnerabilities, and the risk to the ePHI they pose. The BAA could also specify appropriate responses to certain incidents and whether identifying patterns of attempted security incidents is reasonable and appropriate.

Note, though, that the Breach Notification Rule specifies the content, timing, and other requirements for a business associate to report incidents that rise to the level of a breach of unsecured PHI to the covered entity (or business associate) on whose behalf the business associate is maintaining the PHI. See 45 CFR 164.410. The BAA may specify more stringent (e.g., more timely) requirements for reporting than those required by the Breach Notification Rule (so long as they still also meet the Rules requirements) but may not otherwise override the Rules requirements for notification of breaches of unsecured PHI.

For more information on this topic, see the FAQ about reporting security incidents(although directed to plan sponsors and group health plans, the guidance is also relevant to business associates); [16] as well as OCR breach notification guidance [17]

Yes. Health care providers, other covered entities, and business associates may use mobile devices to access electronic protected health information (ePHI) in a cloud as long as appropriate physical, administrative, and technical safeguards are in place to protect the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of the ePHI on the mobile device and in the cloud, and appropriate BAAs are in place with any third party service providers for the device and/or the cloud that will have access to the e-PHI. The HIPAA Rules do not endorse or require specific types of technology, but rather establish the standards for how covered entities and business associates may use or disclose ePHI through certain technology while protecting the security of the ePHI by requiring analysis of the risks to the ePHI posed by such technology and implementation of reasonable and appropriate administrative, technical, and physical safeguards to address such risks. OCR and ONC have issued guidance on the use of mobile devices and tips for securing ePHI on mobile devices. [18]

No, the HIPAA Rules generally do not require a business associate to maintain electronic protected health information (ePHI) beyond the time it provides services to a covered entity or business associate. The Privacy Rule provides that a business associate agreement (BAA) must require a business associate to return or destroy all PHI at the termination of the BAA where feasible. See 45 CFR 164.504(e)(2)(ii)(J).

If such return or destruction is not feasible, the BAA must extend the privacy and security protections of the BAA to the ePHI and limit further uses and disclosures to those purposes that make the return or destruction of the information infeasible. For example, return or destruction would be considered infeasible if other law requires the business associate CSP to retain ePHI for a period of time beyond the termination of the business associate contract.[19]

Yes, provided the covered entity (or business associate) enters into a business associate agreement (BAA) with the CSP and otherwise complies with the applicable requirements of the HIPAA Rules. However, while the HIPAA Rules do not include requirements specific to protection of electronic protected health information (ePHI) processed or stored by a CSP or any other business associate outside of the United States, OCR notes that the risks to such ePHI may vary greatly depending on its geographic location. In particular, outsourcing storage or other services for ePHI overseas may increase the risks and vulnerabilities to the information or present special considerations with respect to enforceability of privacy and security protections over the data. Covered entities (and business associates, including the CSP) should take these risks into account when conducting the risk analysis and risk management required by the Security Rule. See 45 CFR 164.308(a)(1)(ii)(A) and (a)(1)(ii)(B). For example, if ePHI is maintained in a country where there are documented increased attempts at hacking or other malware attacks, such risks should be considered, and entities must implement reasonable and appropriate technical safeguards to address such threats.

No. The HIPAA Rules require covered entity and business associate customers to obtain satisfactory assurances in the form of a business associate agreement (BAA) with the CSP that the CSP will, among other things, appropriately safeguard the protected health information (PHI) that it creates, receives, maintains or transmits for the covered entity or business associate in accordance with the HIPAA Rules. The CSP is also directly liable for failing to safeguard electronic PHI in accordance with the Security Rule [20] and for impermissible uses or disclosures of the PHI. [21]. The HIPAA Rules do not expressly require that a CSP provide documentation of its security practices to or otherwise allow a customer to audit its security practices. However, customers may require from a CSP (through the BAA, service level agreement, or other documentation) additional assurances of protections for the PHI, such as documentation of safeguards or audits, based on their own risk analysis and risk management or other compliance activities.

No. A CSP is not a business associate if it receives and maintains (e.g., to process and/or store) only information de-identified following the processes required by the Privacy Rule. The Privacy Rule does not restrict the use or disclosure of de-identified information, nor does the Security Rule require that safeguards be applied to de-identified information, as the information is not considered protected health information. See the OCR guidance on de-identificationfor more information.[22]

[1] See http://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nistspecialpublication800-145.pdf

[3] As adapted from NIST Special Publication 800-144, vi:

A Public cloud is open for use by the general public and may be owned, managed, and operated by any organization. Examples are the message storage services offered by major email providers, photo-sharing sites, and certain EMR providers. Many large organizations use Private clouds that exclusively serve their business functions. A Community cloud serves exclusively a specific community of users from organizations that have shared concerns. A Hybrid cloud is a combination of any of the above, bound together by standardized or proprietary technology that enables data and application portability.

[9] 78 Fed. Reg. 5,566, 5,572 (January 25, 2013).

[10] A key used to encrypt and decrypt data, also called a cryptographic key, is [a] parameter used in conjunction with a cryptographic algorithm that determines its operation in such a way that an entity with knowledge of the key can reproduce or reverse the operation, while an entity without knowledge of the key cannot. See NIST SP 800-47 Part 1 Revision 4, Recommendation for Key Management Part 1: General (January 2016). Available at http://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/SpecialPublications/NIST.SP.800-57pt1r4.pdf

[19] 67 Fed. Reg. 53181, 53254 (August 14, 2002).

[20] See Section 13401 of the HITECH Act.

[21] See 45 CFR 164.502(a)(3).

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Cloud Computing | HHS.gov

Cloud computing | Shaping Europes digital future

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The global data volume is growing very fast. Whereas cloud computing happens mostly in large data-centres today, by 2025 this trend will reverse: 80% of all data is expected to beprocessed in smart devices closer to the user, known as edge computing.

The availability ofboth edge and cloud computing isessential in a computing continuum to ensure that data isprocessed in the most efficient manner. Energy-efficient and trustworthy edge and cloud infrastructures will be fundamentalfor the sustainable use of edge and cloud computing technologies.

Cloud computing is a key objective to increase Europe's data sovereignty as outlined in the European CommissionsData Strategy,Digital Strategy,Industrial Strategyand theEU recovery plan.

The European Commission has launched aEuropean Alliance on Industrial Data, Edge and Cloud, which will feature the development of several work streams, related to key EU policy goals:

EU countrieshave signedajoint declaration on cloudwhere they expressed their will to collaborate towards the creation of a European cloud.

Other initiatives related tocloud computing are:

In parallel, cloud computing and edge computing will be among those digital technologies that will contribute to achieving the sustainability goals of the EuropeanGreen Dealin areas such as farming, mobility, buildings and manufacturing.

The European Union also supports the development of cloud computing in Europe with research and innovation actions under theHorizon 2020 programme.

EU-funded projects will work on novel solutions for federating cloud infrastructures. New cloud-based services will have to respond to high-standard requirements with regard to data protection, performance, resilience and energy-efficiency. The services and infrastructures will have to meet the future digitisation needs of industry and the public sector. Addressing these challenges will also be part of and contribute to the technological ambitions of theNext Generation Internet(NGI).

In addition, the EU intends to invest 2bn via theEuropean Data Strategyin a European High Impact Project that will federate energy-efficient and trustworthy cloud infrastructures and related services. Cloud technologies that have been developed within Horizon 2020-funded research and by market actors will be deployed via the Connecting Europe Facility 2 (for cloud infrastructures interconnection) and Digital Europe (for cloud-to-edge services and cloud marketplaces) Programme.

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Cloud computing | Shaping Europes digital future

What Is Cloud Computing? A Beginners Guide | Microsoft Azure

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Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)

The most basic category of cloud computing services. With IaaS, you rent IT infrastructureservers and virtual machines (VMs), storage, networks, operating systemsfrom a cloud provider on a pay-as-you-go basis.

Platform as a service refers to cloud computing services that supply an on-demand environment for developing, testing, delivering, and managing software applications. PaaS is designed to make it easier for developers to quickly create web or mobile apps, without worrying about setting up or managing the underlying infrastructure of servers, storage, network, and databases needed for development.

Overlapping with PaaS, serverless computing focuses on building app functionality without spending time continually managing the servers and infrastructure required to do so. The cloud provider handles the setup, capacity planning, and server management for you. Serverless architectures are highly scalable and event-driven, only using resources when a specific function or trigger occurs.

Software as a service is a method for delivering software applications over the Internet, on demand and typically on a subscription basis. With SaaS, cloud providers host and manage the software application and underlying infrastructure, and handle any maintenance, like software upgrades and security patching. Users connect to the application over the Internet, usually with a web browser on their phone, tablet, or PC.

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What Is Cloud Computing? A Beginners Guide | Microsoft Azure

Microsoft warns of cloud computing slowdown – Financial Times

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  1. Microsoft warns of cloud computing slowdown  Financial Times
  2. Microsoft Azure's Slower Growth Shows 'Winter Is Here' for the Cloud  Barron's
  3. Microsoft stock: MSFT rocked by warning of cloud computing slowdown  Capital.com
  4. The slowdown has come for the cloud business  Yahoo Finance
  5. Microsoft tumbles on warning of cloud-computing slowdown  BusinessLIVE
  6. View Full Coverage on Google News

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Microsoft warns of cloud computing slowdown - Financial Times

Frdric Bastiat Quotes (Author of The Law) – Goodreads

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Life Is a Gift from God.We hold from God the gift which includes all others. This gift is life -- physical, intellectual, and moral life.

But life cannot maintain itself alone. The Creator of life has entrusted us with the responsibility of preserving, developing, and perfecting it. In order that we may accomplish this, He has provided us with a collection of marvelous faculties. And He has put us in the midst of a variety of natural resources. By the application of our faculties to these natural resources we convert them into products, and use them. This process is necessary in order that life may run its appointed course.

Life, faculties, production--in other words, individuality, liberty, property -- this is man. And in spite of the cunning of artful political leaders, these three gifts from God precede all human legislation, and are superior to it.

Life, liberty, and property do not exist because men have made laws. On the contrary, it was the fact that life, liberty, and property existed beforehand that caused men to make laws in the first place. Frederic Bastiat, The Law

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Frdric Bastiat Quotes (Author of The Law) - Goodreads