Neurology – Pharmacology – Parkinson disease drugs and Glaucom drugs – Video

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Neurology - Pharmacology - Parkinson disease drugs and Glaucom drugs
These videos are designed for medical students studying for the USMLE step 1 . I took step 1 when i was in 5th grade , my step 1 score : 241 , i did these videos while i was in 6th grade ,...

By: Mohamed EL Husseiny

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Neurology - Pharmacology - Parkinson disease drugs and Glaucom drugs - Video

Neurology – Pharmacology – Anesthetic drugs and Muscle relaxant drugs – Video

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Neurology - Pharmacology - Anesthetic drugs and Muscle relaxant drugs
These videos are designed for medical students studying for the USMLE step 1 . I took step 1 when i was in 5th grade , my step 1 score : 241 , i did these videos while i was in 6th grade ,...

By: Mohamed EL Husseiny

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Neurology - Pharmacology - Anesthetic drugs and Muscle relaxant drugs - Video

Neurology Aftercare Program | PTST Dementia Alzheimer’s | Russ Scala – Video

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Neurology Aftercare Program | PTST Dementia Alzheimer #39;s | Russ Scala
Neurology Aftercare Program | Traumatic Brain Injury PTST Dementia Alzheimer #39;s | Russ Scala At the Institute of Nutritional Medicine and Cardiovascular Research, our aftercare program for...

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Neurology Aftercare Program | PTST Dementia Alzheimer's | Russ Scala - Video

Neurology & Psychiatry Journal and Articles – iMedPub

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Neurology is a branch of medical science that provides a comprehensive overview of the way complex nervous system including the Brain, and the spinal cord functions and regulates the functions of the body. Psychiatry is closely associated with neurology as it deals with the study, diagnosis, prevention and cure of mental disorders. Psychiatry deals with the detection, cure and prevention of cognitive, behavioral, affective and perceptual abnormalities.

Neuropsychiatry is the emerging medical practice that deals addresses the mental disorders arising as a result of neurological disorders. Neuropsychiatry hence surpasses the present disciplines like neurology and psychiatry and it is a combination of the both. The present day neuropsychiatry is subdivided as neuropsychology and behavioral neurology. This is a sub discipline of neurology that deals with the cognitive and behavioral issues arise as a result of imbalance in the nervous system.

Neuropsychiatric disorders can be addressed with the help of a combination of therapeutic methods that includes counseling, administering of medicines, and a set of clinical practices that needs a patient observation and follow up, including rehabilitative measures. Studies in neuropsychiatry can be generally documented as case studies involving patients participation. Neuropsychiatry as an emerging field could bridge the gap between the individual scientific displaces namely Neurology and Psychiatry.

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A Critical Window for Recovery After Stroke | John Krakauer | TEDxJohnsHopkinsUniversity – Video

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A Critical Window for Recovery After Stroke | John Krakauer | TEDxJohnsHopkinsUniversity
Dr. John Krakauer, a Professor of Neurology and Neuroscience at Johns Hopkins University, co-founded the KATA project that combines concepts of neurology and neuroscience with interactive ...

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Neurology Associates in Johnson City, Tennessee with … – YP.com

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Helpful ReviewsGray Station Neurology: Dr. Douglas A. WrightAngie T.rated

i am very pleased with the services at Dr. Wright's office. The staff at the front desk are always very courteous snd helpful. The Nursing staff are also very kind and helpful. The other staff that I have had to see such as the Ultrasound Tech, Lab Tech, and the lady that did my EEG, all have been very pleasant and made sure I was ok and comfortable, they have went above and beyond. I have seen many doctor's trying to find something or anything that might be causing my issues and none of those Drs. could find anything and gave up on me. Thank God that I was referred to Dr. Wright, he has went above and beyond and did test after test even if I had already had it and he has found things that no one else has and he continues to keep a close eye on the things that they have found and he is still trying to find more things so that I can hopefully have a better life. He has went above and beyond and he has truly been a blessing to me, I cannot thank him and his staff for all they have done and their kindness and help. I would most definitely recommend Gray Station Neurology to any one needing their services. There is nothing I can see bad about any one or any thing..

i am extremly satisfied with the care i have recieved at dr douglas wrights office.i have been to many doctors in the past twenty years with fibromyalgia,he is the first dr that even seemed to be truly interested in my health problems,and believe me there are many.i am so thankful that i chose to this office.today i had a nerve test performed and i had swore to myself i would never have another one done because it was so painful so many years ago.i am very pleased to have had it done today,it was not painful at all and the dr was very easy with me . i would recommend this office to anyone and everyone that need neurological care. i could not be more pleased with my treatment.as far as i am concerned i will be a patient here for life. the doctor here and his staff are exceptional. have never felt more secure in the care of any physician in the past ,he has found out more about my health problems than any one else in the past and in such a short time. if you have problems that no one else has helped with do yourself a favor and visit this office.you will be glad you did ,they are the best. kathy whitson .

Recently switched from a Knoxville based clinic....they took my insurance which is almost impossible to find these days dealing w/pain issues.....(saving me around 320.00 per month plus travel fees). They are a legit pain clinic that cares. They will not load you down with medications but are more than fair dealing with legit pain needs. They are super nice...nurses.....staff....and Dr. Desiree!! They have rules but are not overly strict to those that have legit "needs" & "pain issues". If you take your meds and follow with therapy and the suggestions and tests they ask of you....you will be blessed with positive experiences and find your pain a bit more manageable !! And as long as you meet your appt. time you will find your wait and stay short compared to other places. In closing....I Ronald, feel blessed to have found them. But keep in mind THIS IS NOT A PILL MILL!

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Neurology – Wikipedia

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Neurology (from Greek: , neuron, and the suffix - -logia "study of") is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the nervous system. Neurology deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of conditions and disease involving the central and peripheral nervous system (and its subdivisions, the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system); including their coverings, blood vessels, and all effector tissue, such as muscle.[1] Neurological practice relies heavily on the field of neuroscience, which is the scientific study of the nervous system.

A neurologist is a physician specializing in neurology and trained to investigate, or diagnose and treat neurological disorders.[2] Neurologists may also be involved in clinical research, clinical trials, and basic or translational research. While neurology is a non-surgical specialty, its corresponding surgical specialty is neurosurgery.[2]

A large number of neurological disorders have been described as listed. These can affect the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), the peripheral nervous system, the autonomic nervous system and the muscular system.

Occupation type

Activity sectors

Education required

Many neurologists also have additional training or interest in one area of neurology, such as stroke, epilepsy, neuromuscular, sleep medicine, pain management, or movement disorders.

In the United States and Canada, neurologists are physicians having completed postgraduate training in neurology after graduation from medical school. Neurologists complete, on average, at least 1013 years of college education and clinical training. This training includes obtaining a four-year undergraduate degree, a medical degree (D.O. or M.D.), which comprises an additional four years of study, and then completing a one-year internship and a three-year residency in neurology.[6] The four-year residency consists of one year of internal medicine internship training followed by three years of training in neurology.

Some neurologists receive additional subspecialty training focusing on a particular area of neurology. These training programs are called fellowships, and are one to two years in duration. Sub-specialties include: brain injury medicine, clinical neurophysiology, epilepsy, hospice and palliative medicine, neurodevelopmental disabilities, neuromuscular medicine, pain medicine and sleep medicine, neurocritical care, vascular neurology (stroke),[7]behavioral neurology, child neurology, headache, multiple sclerosis, neuroimaging, neurorehabilitation, and interventional neurology.

In Germany, a compulsory year of psychiatry must be done to complete a residency of neurology.

In the United Kingdom and Ireland, neurology is a subspecialty of general (internal) medicine. After five to nine years of medical school and a year as a pre-registration house officer (or two years on the Foundation Programme), a neurologist must pass the examination for Membership of the Royal College of Physicians (or the Irish equivalent) before completing two years of core medical training and then entering specialist training in neurology. A generation ago, some neurologists would have also spent a couple of years working in psychiatric units and obtain a Diploma in Psychological Medicine. However, this requirement has become uncommon, and, now that a basic psychiatric qualification takes three years to obtain, the requirement is no longer practical. A period of research is essential, and obtaining a higher degree aids career progression: Many found it was eased after an attachment to the Institute of Neurology at Queen Square, London. Some neurologists enter the field of rehabilitation medicine (known as physiatry in the US) to specialise in neurological rehabilitation, which may include stroke medicine as well as brain injuries.

During a neurological examination, the neurologist reviews the patient's health history with special attention to the current condition. The patient then takes a neurological exam. Typically, the exam tests mental status, function of the cranial nerves (including vision), strength, coordination, reflexes, and sensation. This information helps the neurologist determine whether the problem exists in the nervous system and the clinical localization. Localization of the pathology is the key process by which neurologists develop their differential diagnosis. Further tests may be needed to confirm a diagnosis and ultimately guide therapy and appropriate management.

Neurologists examine patients who have been referred to them by other physicians in both the inpatient and outpatient settings. A neurologist will begin their interaction with a patient by taking a comprehensive medical history, and then perform a physical examination focusing on evaluating the nervous system. Components of the neurological examination include assessment of the patient's cognitive function, cranial nerves, motor strength, sensation, reflexes, coordination, and gait.

In some instances, neurologists may order additional diagnostic tests as part of the evaluation. Commonly employed tests in neurology include imaging studies such as computed axial tomography (CAT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasound of major blood vessels of the head and neck. Neurophysiologic studies, including electroencephalography (EEG), needle electromyography (EMG), nerve conduction studies (NCSs) and evoked potentials are also commonly ordered. Neurologists frequently perform lumbar punctures in order to assess characteristics of a patient's cerebrospinal fluid. Advances in genetic testing has made genetic testing an important tool in the classification of inherited neuromuscular disease. The role of genetic influences on the development of acquired neuromuscular diseases is an active area of research.

Some of the commonly encountered conditions treated by neurologists include headaches, radiculopathy, neuropathy, stroke, dementia, seizures and epilepsy, Alzheimer's Disease, Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder,[8][9]Parkinson's Disease, Tourette's syndrome, multiple sclerosis, head trauma, sleep disorders, neuromuscular diseases, and various infections and tumors of the nervous system. Neurologists are also asked to evaluate unresponsive patients on life support in order to confirm brain death.

Treatment options vary depending on the neurological problem. They can include everything from referring the patient to a physiotherapist, to prescribing medications, to recommending a surgical procedure.

Some neurologists specialize in certain parts of the nervous system or in specific procedures. For example, clinical neurophysiologists specialize in the use of EEG and intraoperative monitoring in order to diagnose certain neurological disorders.[10] Other neurologists specialize in the use of electrodiagnostic medicine studies - needle EMG and NCSs. In the US, physicians do not typically specialize in all the aspects of clinical neurophysiology - i.e. sleep, EEG, EMG, and NCSs. The American Board of Clinical Neurophysiology certifies US physicians in general clinical neurophysiology, epilepsy, and intraoperative monitoring.[11] The American Board of Electrodiagnostic Medicine certifies US physicians in electrodiagnostic medicine and certifies technologists in nerve conduction studies.[12] Sleep medicine is a subspecialty field in the US under several medical specialties including anesthesiology, internal medicine, family medicine, and neurology.[13] Neurosurgery is a distinct specialty that involves a different training path, and emphasizes the surgical treatment of neurological disorders.

There are also many non-medical doctors, those with PhD degrees in subjects such as biology and chemistry, who study and research the nervous system. Working in labs in universities, hospitals, and private companies, these neuroscientists perform clinical and laboratory experiments and tests in order to learn more about the nervous system and find cures or new treatments for diseases and disorders.

There is a great deal of overlap between neuroscience and neurology. A large number of neurologists work in academic training hospitals, where they conduct research as neuroscientists in addition to treating patients and teaching neurology to medical students.

Neurologists are responsible for the diagnosis, treatment, and management of all the conditions mentioned above. When surgical intervention is required, the neurologist may refer the patient to a neurosurgeon. In some countries, additional legal responsibilities of a neurologist may include making a finding of brain death when it is suspected that a patient has died. Neurologists frequently care for people with hereditary (genetic) diseases when the major manifestations are neurological, as is frequently the case. Lumbar punctures are frequently performed by neurologists. Some neurologists may develop an interest in particular subfields, such as stroke, dementia, movement disorders, neurointensive care, headaches, epilepsy, sleep disorders, chronic pain management, multiple sclerosis, or neuromuscular diseases.

There is some overlap with other specialties, varying from country to country and even within a local geographic area. Acute head trauma is most often treated by neurosurgeons, whereas sequelae of head trauma may be treated by neurologists or specialists in rehabilitation medicine. Although stroke cases have been traditionally managed by internal medicine or hospitalists, the emergence of vascular neurology and interventional neurologists has created a demand for stroke specialists. The establishment of Joint Commission certified stroke centers has increased the role of neurologists in stroke care in many primary as well as tertiary hospitals. Some cases of nervous system infectious diseases are treated by infectious disease specialists. Most cases of headache are diagnosed and treated primarily by general practitioners, at least the less severe cases. Likewise, most cases of sciatica and other mechanical radiculopathies are treated by general practitioners, though they may be referred to neurologists or a surgeon (neurosurgeons or orthopedic surgeons). Sleep disorders are also treated by pulmonologists and psychiatrists. Cerebral palsy is initially treated by pediatricians, but care may be transferred to an adult neurologist after the patient reaches a certain age. Physical medicine and rehabilitation physicians also in the US diagnosis and treat patients with neuromuscular diseases through the use of electrodiagnostic studies (needle EMG and nerve conduction studies) and other diagnostic tools. In the United Kingdom and other countries, many of the conditions encountered by older patients such as movement disorders including Parkinson's Disease, stroke, dementia or gait disorders are managed predominantly by specialists in geriatric medicine.

Clinical neuropsychologists are often called upon to evaluate brain-behavior relationships for the purpose of assisting with differential diagnosis, planning rehabilitation strategies, documenting cognitive strengths and weaknesses, and measuring change over time (e.g., for identifying abnormal aging or tracking the progression of a dementia).

In some countries, e.g. USA and Germany, neurologists may subspecialize in clinical neurophysiology, the field responsible for EEG and intraoperative monitoring, or in electrodiagnostic medicine nerve conduction studies, EMG and evoked potentials. In other countries, this is an autonomous specialty (e.g., United Kingdom, Sweden, Spain).

Although mental illnesses are believed by many to be neurological disorders affecting the central nervous system, traditionally they are classified separately, and treated by psychiatrists. In a 2002 review article in the American Journal of Psychiatry, Professor Joseph B. Martin, Dean of Harvard Medical School and a neurologist by training, wrote that "the separation of the two categories is arbitrary, often influenced by beliefs rather than proven scientific observations. And the fact that the brain and mind are one makes the separation artificial anyway".[14]

Neurological disorders often have psychiatric manifestations, such as post-stroke depression, depression and dementia associated with Parkinson's disease, mood and cognitive dysfunctions in Alzheimer's disease and Huntington disease, to name a few. Hence, there is not always a sharp distinction between neurology and psychiatry on a biological basis. The dominance of psychoanalytic theory in the first three quarters of the 20th century has since then been largely replaced by a focus on pharmacology.[citation needed] Despite the shift to a medical model, brain science has not advanced to the point where scientists or clinicians can point to readily discernible pathologic lesions or genetic abnormalities that in and of themselves serve as reliable or predictive biomarkers of a given mental disorder.

The emerging field of neurological enhancement highlights the potential of therapies to improve such things as workplace efficacy, attention in school, and overall happiness in personal lives.[15] However, this field has also given rise to questions about neuroethics and the psychopharmacology of lifestyle drugs.

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Neurology - Wikipedia

UC Neuroscience Institute | Leading the Advance in …

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The Brain Tumor Center at the University of Cincinnati (UC) Neuroscience Institute offers hope, compassion, expertise and the world's most advanced technologies to patients from across the region and around the world.

One of nine centers within the UC Neuroscience Institute, we are closely affiliated with University of Cincinnati Medical Center (UCMC), UC College of Medicine, and the UC Barrett Cancer Center at UCMC.

Read More about the Brain Tumor Center

The Comprehensive Stroke Center, together with the Greater Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky Stroke Team and the surgical/interventional neurovascular program provides a comprehensive center for stroke prevention and treatment of transient ischemic attack (TIA), ischemic stroke, aneurysm, arteriovenous malformation, and other cerebrovascular issues.

Our internationally renowned faculty plays a leading role in clinical research and basic science studies, and the Comprehensive Stroke Center receives referrals from across the Midwest and around the world.

Read More about the Comprehensive Stroke Center

Physicians at the Epilepsy Center at the UC Neuroscience Institute diagnose and treat hundreds of adult patients from across the region each year. Our multidisciplinary team has been together longer than any other epilepsy team in the country. It includes epileptologist, a neurosurgeon who specializes in epilepsy surgery, neuropsychologists, nurse clinicians, neuroscience nurses, and registered EEG technologists.

The Epilepsy Center is the region's only adult center with a Level IV ratingthe highest rating possiblefrom the National Association of Epilepsy Centers.

Read More about the Epilepsy Center

Welcome to the Memory Disorders Program at the UC Neuroscience Institute. Whether you have come to us seeking a diagnosis, a leading treatment, or a path forward, we will provide you or your loved one with advanced, compassionate and competent care.

Read More about the Memory Disorders Center

The Mood Disorders Center at the UC Neuroscience Institute employs the most advanced methods to diagnose and treat adult and adolescent patients from across the Greater Cincinnati region. Our physicians are experts in the diagnosis and treatment of depression, bipolar spectrum disorder, anxiety disorders, cyclothymia and dysthymia. We treat mood disorders induced by alcohol or substance abuse.

Read More about the UC Mood Disorders Center

The UC Neurobiology Research Center highlights the importance of discovery to the University of Cincinnati Neuroscience Institutes mission of education, research and treatment, and it serves as a driving force for the integration of clinical and basic science research programs.

The Neurobiology Research Center coordinates and awards numerous pilot grants each year to further developing research that has the potential to achieve larger grant funding in the future. UC faculty and senior fellows are eligible to compete for the grants, which emphasize collaboration between basic researchers and clinicians.

This Center of Excellence also plays a key role in coordinating recruitment of new neuroscientists at the University of Cincinnati, and enhances an already strong Neuroscience Graduate Training Program.

Read More about the UC Neurobiology Research Center

The Neuromuscular Center at the UC Neuroscience Institute employs the most advanced technologies and therapies to diagnose and treat hundreds of adult patients from across the Greater Cincinnati region each year. Our physicians are experts in the diagnosis and treatment of neuromuscular disorders, which can encompass everything from common low back pain with lumbar nerve root compression (lumbar radiculopathy) to very specific disorders of muscle strength and deterioration (muscular dystrophy). We provide compassionate and comprehensive care to patients who are struggling with these difficult diseases.

Read More about the Neuromuscular Center

The ability to speak, hear, taste, smell and swallow are integral to our everyday social interactions, whether at work, at home, or at leisure. The loss of any one of these abilities, which are so often taken for granted, can profoundly affect a patient's physical and emotional well-being.

Fortunately for people struggling with disorders of the senses, otolaryngologists (ear, nose and throat physicians) at the UC Neuroscience Institute are skilled in the latest ways to diagnose and treat these often debilitating disorders. Many of these disorders require straightforward lifestyle changes (such as smoking cessation) to dramatically improve the function of the senses involved.

In addition, neurosurgeons at the center are internationally recognized for their work in research and treatment of trigeminal neuralgia (facial pain) and other functional pain disorders.

Read More about the Neurosensory Disorders Center

The UC Neuroscience Institute Neurotrauma Center treats patients with traumatic brain and spine injuries. It is based at the Trauma Center atthe University of Cincinnati Medical Center, the only Level 1 adult trauma center in the region. Recognized regionally and around the country for its leadership in trauma care, the Trauma Center is nationally certified by the American College of Surgeons. In addition, University Hospital is home to a nationally certified Adult Burn Unit, the only such unit in the region.

The specialists of the Neurotrauma Center play a life-saving and life-enhancing role in this multidisciplinary effort, and are supported by University Air Care (one of the nation's most advanced emergency air medical transport services) and the Center for Emergency Care at University Hospital.

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The James J. and Joan A. Gardner Family Center for Parkinson's Disease and Movement Disorders at the UC Neuroscience Institute is one of the most progressive centers of its kind. Our physicians provide each patient with world-class care, beginning with a team analysis by movement disorder experts in the fields of neurology, neurosurgery, and neuropsychiatry.

Experts at the Gardner Family Center treat all movement disorders, including Parkinson's disease, essential tremor, dystonia, and Huntington's disease. Physicians are often capable of lessening the symptoms of Parkinson's and other movement disorders through medications and surgical interventions that stimulate the area where nerve cells are affected.

Read More about the Gardner Center for Parkinson's Disease and Movement Disorders

The Waddell Center for Multiple Sclerosis at the UC Neuroscience Institute is a regional center of excellence, certified member of the National MS Consortium, and an affiliate of the National MS Society. Our internationally recognized team of neurologists, nurses, and therapists works to provide the best treatments available.

The team also includes dedicated researchers who are studying the underlying mechanisms of MS in laboratories and conducting clinical trials funded by foundation grants and the National Institutes of Health.

Continuity of care is essential to help MS patients reach their maximum potential. To achieve this, our physicians remain intimately involved in the care and treatment of MS patients throughout their rehabilitation.

Read More about the Waddell Center for Multiple Sclerosis

The UC Health Headache and Facial Pain Program offers hope to people who suffer from pain and havent found adequate relief.

While an occasional headache is common, when head pain becomes chronic or debilitating, finding answers and relief may be much more difficult.

UC Health brings together some of the nations foremost experts on headache and facial pain in a unique and rare program designed to bring answers and healing.

Read More about the Headache and Facial Pain Program

For patients who are confronting serious injury, severe symptoms, complex surgery or a challenging diagnosis, a short hospital stay and quick recovery are not always possible. They and their families can rest assured, however, that the UC Neuroscience Institute has the most advanced resources, technology and expertise available anywhere in the world. These resources, provided 24 hours a day, are nowhere more evident than in Neurocritical Care.

The ultimate goal of neurocritical care is to resuscitate and support the acutely ill neurological patient, minimize secondary neurological injury and medical complications, and facilitate the patients transition to a recovery environment.

Read More about the Neurocritical Care Program

The Neurorestorative Program at the University of Cincinnati Neuroscience Institute is an integrated multidisciplinary program focused around one goal: restoring function to patients who suffer from painful or life-altering neurological impairments. The Neurorestorative team includes renowned specialists who focus on innovations in the surgical treatment of neurological disorders such as Epilepsy and movement disorders, along with medical treatment of psychiatric disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder and depression.

Many patients who benefit from Neurorestorative services also interact with other areas of the Neuroscience Institute in order to receive the most comprehensive care available. With help from our Neurorestorative Program patients see improvements in symptom control and an increasingly better quality of life.

Read More about the Neurorestorative Program

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Neuroscience – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system.[1] Traditionally, neuroscience has been seen as a branch of biology. However, it is currently an interdisciplinary science that collaborates with other fields such as chemistry, cognitive science, computer science, engineering, linguistics, mathematics, medicine (including neurology), genetics, and allied disciplines including philosophy, physics, and psychology. It also exerts influence on other fields, such as neuroeducation,[2]neuroethics, and neurolaw. The term neurobiology is usually used interchangeably with the term neuroscience, although the former refers specifically to the biology of the nervous system, whereas the latter refers to the entire science of the nervous system.

The scope of neuroscience has broadened to include different approaches used to study the molecular, cellular, developmental, structural, functional, evolutionary, computational, and medical aspects of the nervous system. The techniques used by neuroscientists have also expanded enormously, from molecular and cellular studies of individual nerve cells to imaging of sensory and motor tasks in the brain. Recent theoretical advances in neuroscience have also been aided by the study of neural networks.

As a result of the increasing number of scientists who study the nervous system, several prominent neuroscience organizations have been formed to provide a forum to all neuroscientists and educators. For example, the International Brain Research Organization was founded in 1960,[3] the International Society for Neurochemistry in 1963,[4] the European Brain and Behaviour Society in 1968,[5] and the Society for Neuroscience in 1969.[6]

The study of the nervous system dates back to ancient Egypt. Evidence of trepanation, the surgical practice of either drilling or scraping a hole into the skull with the purpose of curing headaches or mental disorders or relieving cranial pressure, being performed on patients dates back to Neolithic times and has been found in various cultures throughout the world. Manuscripts dating back to 1700BC indicated that the Egyptians had some knowledge about symptoms of brain damage.[7]

Early views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a "cranial stuffing" of sorts. In Egypt, from the late Middle Kingdom onwards, the brain was regularly removed in preparation for mummification. It was believed at the time that the heart was the seat of intelligence. According to Herodotus, the first step of mummification was to "take a crooked piece of iron, and with it draw out the brain through the nostrils, thus getting rid of a portion, while the skull is cleared of the rest by rinsing with drugs."[8]

The view that the heart was the source of consciousness was not challenged until the time of the Greek physician Hippocrates. He believed that the brain was not only involved with sensationsince most specialized organs (e.g.,eyes, ears, tongue) are located in the head near the brainbut was also the seat of intelligence. Plato also speculated that the brain was the seat of the rational part of the soul.[9]Aristotle, however, believed the heart was the center of intelligence and that the brain regulated the amount of heat from the heart.[10] This view was generally accepted until the Roman physician Galen, a follower of Hippocrates and physician to Roman gladiators, observed that his patients lost their mental faculties when they had sustained damage to their brains.

Abulcasis, Averroes, Avenzoar, and Maimonides, active in the Medieval Muslim world, described a number of medical problems related to the brain. In Renaissance Europe, Vesalius (15141564), Ren Descartes (15961650), and Thomas Willis (16211675) also made several contributions to neuroscience.

Studies of the brain became more sophisticated after the invention of the microscope and the development of a staining procedure by Camillo Golgi during the late 1890s. The procedure used a silver chromate salt to reveal the intricate structures of individual neurons. His technique was used by Santiago Ramn y Cajal and led to the formation of the neuron doctrine, the hypothesis that the functional unit of the brain is the neuron.[11] Golgi and Ramn y Cajal shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for their extensive observations, descriptions, and categorizations of neurons throughout the brain. While Luigi Galvani's pioneering work in the late 1700s had set the stage for studying the electrical excitability of muscles and neurons, it was in the late 19th century that Emil du Bois-Reymond, Johannes Peter Mller, and Hermann von Helmholtz demonstrated that the electrical excitation of neurons predictably affected the electrical states of adjacent neurons,[citation needed] and Richard Caton found electrical phenomena in the cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys.

In parallel with this research, work with brain-damaged patients by Paul Broca suggested that certain regions of the brain were responsible for certain functions. At the time, Broca's findings were seen as a confirmation of Franz Joseph Gall's theory that language was localized and that certain psychological functions were localized in specific areas of the cerebral cortex.[12][13] The localization of function hypothesis was supported by observations of epileptic patients conducted by John Hughlings Jackson, who correctly inferred the organization of the motor cortex by watching the progression of seizures through the body. Carl Wernicke further developed the theory of the specialization of specific brain structures in language comprehension and production. Modern research through neuroimaging techniques, still uses the Brodmann cerebral cytoarchitectonic map (referring to study of cell structure) anatomical definitions from this era in continuing to show that distinct areas of the cortex are activated in the execution of specific tasks.[14]

During the 20th century, neuroscience began to be recognized as a distinct academic discipline in its own right, rather than as studies of the nervous system within other disciplines. Eric Kandel and collaborators have cited David Rioch, Francis O. Schmitt, and Stephen Kuffler as having played critical roles in establishing the field.[15] Rioch originated the integration of basic anatomical and physiological research with clinical psychiatry at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, starting in the 1950s. During the same period, Schmitt established a neuroscience research program within the Biology Department at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, bringing together biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. Kuffler started the Department of Neuroscience at Harvard Medical School in 1966, the first such freestanding department.

In 1952, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley presented a mathematical model for transmission of electrical signals in neurons of the giant axon of a squid, action potentials, and how they are initiated and propagated, known as the HodgkinHuxley model. In 19612, Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo simplified HodgkinHuxley, in what is called the FitzHughNagumo model. In 1962, Bernard Katz modeled neurotransmission across the space between neurons known as synapses. Beginning in 1966, Eric Kandel and collaborators examined biochemical changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage in Aplysia. In 1981 Catherine Morris and Harold Lecar combined these models in the MorrisLecar model.

The scientific study of the nervous system has increased significantly during the second half of the twentieth century, principally due to advances in molecular biology, electrophysiology, and computational neuroscience. This has allowed neuroscientists to study the nervous system in all its aspects: how it is structured, how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be changed. For example, it has become possible to understand, in much detail, the complex processes occurring within a single neuron. Neurons are cells specialized for communication. They are able to communicate with neurons and other cell types through specialized junctions called synapses, at which electrical or electrochemical signals can be transmitted from one cell to another. Many neurons extrude long thin filaments of protoplasm called axons, which may extend to distant parts of the body and are capable of rapidly carrying electrical signals, influencing the activity of other neurons, muscles, or glands at their termination points. A nervous system emerges from the assemblage of neurons that are connected to each other.

In vertebrates, the nervous system can be split into two parts, the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), and the peripheral nervous system. In many species including all vertebrates the nervous system is the most complex organ system in the body, with most of the complexity residing in the brain. The human brain alone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses; it consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures, connected to each other in synaptic networks whose intricacies have only begun to be unraveled. The majority of the approximately 2025,000 genes belonging to the human genome are expressed specifically in the brain. Due to the plasticity of the human brain, the structure of its synapses and their resulting functions change throughout life.[16] Thus the challenge of making sense of all this complexity is formidable.

The study of the nervous system can be done at multiple levels, ranging from the molecular and cellular levels to the systems and cognitive levels. At the molecular level, the basic questions addressed in molecular neuroscience include the mechanisms by which neurons express and respond to molecular signals and how axons form complex connectivity patterns. At this level, tools from molecular biology and genetics are used to understand how neurons develop and how genetic changes affect biological functions. The morphology, molecular identity, and physiological characteristics of neurons and how they relate to different types of behavior are also of considerable interest.

The fundamental questions addressed in cellular neuroscience include the mechanisms of how neurons process signals physiologically and electrochemically. These questions include how signals are processed by neurites thin extensions from a neuronal cell body, consisting of dendrites (specialized to receive synaptic inputs from other neurons) and axons (specialized to conduct nerve impulses called action potentials) and somas (the cell bodies of the neurons containing the nucleus), and how neurotransmitters and electrical signals are used to process information in a neuron. Another major area of neuroscience is directed at investigations of the development of the nervous system. These questions include the patterning and regionalization of the nervous system, neural stem cells, differentiation of neurons and glia, neuronal migration, axonal and dendritic development, trophic interactions, and synapse formation.

At the systems level, the questions addressed in systems neuroscience include how neural circuits are formed and used anatomically and physiologically to produce functions such as reflexes, multisensory integration, motor coordination, circadian rhythms, emotional responses, learning, and memory. In other words, they address how these neural circuits function and the mechanisms through which behaviors are generated. For example, systems level analysis addresses questions concerning specific sensory and motor modalities: how does vision work? How do songbirds learn new songs and bats localize with ultrasound? How does the somatosensory system process tactile information? The related fields of neuroethology and neuropsychology address the question of how neural substrates underlie specific animal and human behaviors. Neuroendocrinology and psychoneuroimmunology examine interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine and immune systems, respectively. Despite many advancements, the way networks of neurons produce complex cognitions and behaviors is still poorly understood.

At the cognitive level, cognitive neuroscience addresses the questions of how psychological functions are produced by neural circuitry. The emergence of powerful new measurement techniques such as neuroimaging (e.g., fMRI, PET, SPECT), electrophysiology, and human genetic analysis combined with sophisticated experimental techniques from cognitive psychology allows neuroscientists and psychologists to address abstract questions such as how human cognition and emotion are mapped to specific neural substrates.

Neuroscience is also allied with the social and behavioral sciences as well as nascent interdisciplinary fields such as neuroeconomics, decision theory, and social neuroscience to address complex questions about interactions of the brain with its environment.

Ultimately neuroscientists would like to understand every aspect of the nervous system, including how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be altered or repaired. The specific topics that form the main foci of research change over time, driven by an ever-expanding base of knowledge and the availability of increasingly sophisticated technical methods. Over the long term, improvements in technology have been the primary drivers of progress. Developments in electron microscopy, computers, electronics, functional brain imaging, and most recently genetics and genomics, have all been major drivers of progress.

Most studies in neurology have too few test subjects to be scientifically sure. Those insufficient size studies are the basis for all domain-specific diagnoses in neuropsychiatry, since the few large enough studies there are always find individuals with the brain changes thought to be associated with a mental condition but without any of the symptoms. The only diagnoses that can be validated through large enough brain studies are those on serious brain damages and neurodegenerative diseases that destroy most of the brain.[17][18]

Neurology, psychiatry, neurosurgery, psychosurgery, anesthesiology and pain medicine, neuropathology, neuroradiology, ophthalmology, otolaryngology, clinical neurophysiology, addiction medicine, and sleep medicine are some medical specialties that specifically address the diseases of the nervous system. These terms also refer to clinical disciplines involving diagnosis and treatment of these diseases. Neurology works with diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and stroke, and their medical treatment. Psychiatry focuses on affective, behavioral, cognitive, and perceptual disorders. Anesthesiology focuses on perception of pain, and pharmacologic alteration of consciousness. Neuropathology focuses upon the classification and underlying pathogenic mechanisms of central and peripheral nervous system and muscle diseases, with an emphasis on morphologic, microscopic, and chemically observable alterations. Neurosurgery and psychosurgery work primarily with surgical treatment of diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems. The boundaries between these specialties have been blurring recently as they are all influenced by basic research in neuroscience. Brain imaging also enables objective, biological insights into mental illness, which can lead to faster diagnosis, more accurate prognosis, and help assess patient progress over time.[19]

Integrative neuroscience makes connections across these specialized areas of focus.

Modern neuroscience education and research activities can be very roughly categorized into the following major branches, based on the subject and scale of the system in examination as well as distinct experimental or curricular approaches. Individual neuroscientists, however, often work on questions that span several distinct subfields.

The largest professional neuroscience organization is the Society for Neuroscience (SFN), which is based in the United States but includes many members from other countries. Since its founding in 1969 the SFN has grown steadily: as of 2010 it recorded 40,290 members from 83 different countries.[22] Annual meetings, held each year in a different American city, draw attendance from researchers, postdoctoral fellows, graduate students, and undergraduates, as well as educational institutions, funding agencies, publishers, and hundreds of businesses that supply products used in research.

Other major organizations devoted to neuroscience include the International Brain Research Organization (IBRO), which holds its meetings in a country from a different part of the world each year, and the Federation of European Neuroscience Societies (FENS), which holds a meeting in a different European city every two years. FENS comprises a set of 32 national-level organizations, including the British Neuroscience Association, the German Neuroscience Society (Neurowissenschaftliche Gesellschaft), and the French Socit des Neurosciences. The first National Honor Society in Neuroscience, Nu Rho Psi, was founded in 2006.

In 2013, the BRAIN Initiative was announced in the US.

In addition to conducting traditional research in laboratory settings, neuroscientists have also been involved in the promotion of awareness and knowledge about the nervous system among the general public and government officials. Such promotions have been done by both individual neuroscientists and large organizations. For example, individual neuroscientists have promoted neuroscience education among young students by organizing the International Brain Bee, which is an academic competition for high school or secondary school students worldwide.[23] In the United States, large organizations such as the Society for Neuroscience have promoted neuroscience education by developing a primer called Brain Facts,[24] collaborating with public school teachers to develop Neuroscience Core Concepts for K-12 teachers and students,[25] and cosponsoring a campaign with the Dana Foundation called Brain Awareness Week to increase public awareness about the progress and benefits of brain research.[26] In Canada, the CIHR Canadian National Brain Bee is held annually at McMaster University.[27]

Finally, neuroscientists have also collaborated with other education experts to study and refine educational techniques to optimize learning among students, an emerging field called educational neuroscience.[28] Federal agencies in the United States, such as the National Institute of Health (NIH)[29] and National Science Foundation (NSF),[30] have also funded research that pertains to best practices in teaching and learning of neuroscience concepts.

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Neuroscience - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Neurology – Anatomy and physiology – Dincephalon and Ventricular System – Video

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Neurology - Anatomy and physiology - Dincephalon and Ventricular System
These videos are designed for medical students studying for the USMLE step 1 . I took step 1 when i was in 5th grade , my step 1 score : 241 , i did these videos while i was in 6th grade ,...

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Our Doctors | The Neurology Center of Southern California …

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Brian Belnap, D.O. Andrew Michael Blumenfeld, M.D. Thomas Chippendale, M.D Emeritus Bilal Choudry, M.D. Benjamin Frishberg, M.D. Michael Lobatz, M.D. Amy Nielsen, D.O. Irene Oh, M.D. Remia Paduga, M.D. Jay Rosen, Ph.D Jay Rosenberg, M.D Mark Sadoff, M.D. Gregory Sahagian, M.D. Jack Schim, M.D. Lesly Giselle Aguilar Tabora, M.D. Anchi Wang, M.D. Chunyang Tracy Wang, M.D., M.S. Michael Zupancic, M.D. Peter Heinen, P.A. Kathleen Hermanson, P.A. Stephanie Huang, P.A. Andrew Inocelda, P.A. Alicia Son, P.A. Megan Strowd, P.A. Melissa Mortin, N.P. Phyllis Taylor, N.P Brian Belnap, D.O.

Dr Belnap is accepting new patients. Please call 760-631-3000.

Dr. Belnap is a double board certified specialist in the fields of Pain Management and Rehabilitation Medicine. He completed his undergraduate training at Brigham Young University in Provo, UT and medical school at Midwestern University in Glendale, AZ. He then completed his residency in Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation at Walter Reed Army Medical Center in Washington DC followed by a fellowship in Pain Management at UC Davis Medical Center in Sacramento, California. He served as Chief Resident towards the end of his residency and upon completion of the program was selected as Chief of the Inpatient Rehabilitation Service at Walter Reed Army Medical Center. He was then chosen by the Surgeon General of the Army to relocate west with the task to help establish a highly specialized combat casualty rehabilitation center at Naval Medical Center San Diego. He became the first Medical Director of this center and upon separation from the military was awarded the Meritorious Service Medal which is equivalent to the Bronze Star for combat service.

Dr. Belnap has expertise in providing treatment for a wide array of conditions including sports injuries, spine & joint disorders, complex polytraumatic injuries, amputations and neurologic disorders. He has been a contributing author in peer reviewed journal articles and medical textbook chapters in his specialty. He has also given numerous presentations at national and local conferences throughout his career. He is a native of Southern California and enjoys basketball, volleyball, surfing, volunteering in his church & community and spending time with his wife and four children.

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Dr. Blumenfeld is accepting new patients. Please call 760-631-3000.

Dr. Blumenfeld is director of the Headache Center of Southern California. As director, he has encouraged the development of a center addressing the multi-faceted needs of headache sufferers. These needs include acute care, educational programs and other specialty services. This comprehensive approach treats the whole person in a highly individualized manner and addresses the growing demand for one-stop treatment services.

Dr. Blumenfeld grew up in South Africa and graduated from St. Andrews College, South Africa, with a first class pass and distinction in mathematics. He attended the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa Medical School and completed a neurology residency at Johannesburg Hospital. In 1986 he moved to the United States and completed a neurology residency at the University of Massachusetts Medical School. Following this, he completed an EEG and EMG fellowship, also at University of Massachusetts Medical School.

He served as staff neurologist at Kaiser Permanente, San Diego from 1990 to 2004. As Chief of Neurology Service at Kaiser from 1999-2004, his unit was named a Neurotoxin Center of Excellence by Thomas Jefferson University and Jefferson Medical College. The Neurotoxin Centers of Excellence recognize excellence in neurologists and other physicians who specialize in headache management.

Dr Blumenfeld is a member of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Headache Society. He has published widely and has been an active researcher in headaches.

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Muscle Twitches All OVER – Neurology – MedHelp

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HI Ianna- some sources report that TOO MUCH calcium taken at the same TIME- can interfere w/ magnesium absorption. They compete for absorption and calcium usually wins. Slow- mag the kind i take, does have a LITTLE calcium in it-- but not enough to interfere and enough ratio to help them work together. it is recommended to take calcium and magnesium at different times if you are to take more calcium in a day. I take my calcium supplement at a different time. for people with a deficiency, definately need to take their magnesium separately or in a combo ratio like Slow-mag. below is some literature from the web on the subject (different views on the absorption issue): (remember, regular blood serum tests will be innacurate- it does not show a deficiency or low "intracellular" amounts)

Magnesium

Type

Mineral

Source

Wheat germ, wheat bran, brewer's yeast, nuts whole grains, brown rice, green leafy vegetables, honey, fish, fruits, figs, almonds, beans, pistachio nuts, sunflower seeds.

Dosage

300-1600mg daily.

Discussion

Magnesium is needed for healthy nerve and muscle tissue. It is responsible for more biochemical reactions in the body than any other mineral. It acts with calcium and phosphorus to ensure proper metabolism and with potassium to modify sodium levels. Magnesium is needed by every cell for synthesis of protein, utilization of fats and carbohydrates, and production of energy. It is used with B6 in many enzyme systems and to produce energy. * Magnesium is lost with excess sugar and caffeine intake. * Alcohol and sodium deplete magnesium. * Too much calcium blocks magnesium absorption/utilization. * Saturated fat blocks magnesium absorption and utilization. * Magnesium consumption decreases as we age. * 1 soda drink contains about 30mg of phosphate. Every mg of phosphate eliminates 1mg of magnesium from your body. Magnesium glycinate is magnesium chelated with glycine, which is a great carrier for magnesium. Its low molecular weight gives higher absorption and it does not require stomach acid to be absorbed. A magnesium deficiency is associated with low levels of calcium and potassium. Excessive amounts of magnesium can prevent calcium from being absorbed so some doctors recommend taking calcium and magnesium at different times. Other sources say that calcium and magnesium are absorbed differently and do not interfere with each other. Magnesium and B6 work together. B6 assures proper magnesium in red blood cells and magnesium activates dozens of B6 enzymes. You cannot metabolize C, D, phosphorus, sodium, and potassium without sufficient magnesium.

Deficiency Symptoms

It is thought that 20-80% of the population of the United States is deficient in magnesium. It is implicated in ischemic heart disease, angina, cardiac arrhythmia, hypertension, osteoporosis, diabetes, stroke, vascular-spasm and diabetes-caused vision problems. Magnesium is used with B6 in many enzyme systems and to produce energy. Many B6 deficiency symptoms are the same as magnesium - convulsions, tremors, kidney stones, and insomnia. Magnesium Deficiency Symptoms: * Tremors, muscle twitches and cramps, muscle weakness and pain * Palpitations, breathlessness * Insomnia, sensitivity to loud noises * Migraine or tension headaches * Nervousness, irritability * Mental and physical fatigue * Fearfulness, confusion, disorientation, poor concentration * Psychiatric disturbances, depression, schizophrenia, autism * Glandular disturbances * Poor circulation, constriction of blood vessels, high blood pressure, high LDL * Calcium deposits * Heart disease, chest pain * Poor complexion * Menopause-associated insomnia, infertility, premature birth * Abdominal pain, constipation * Feeling like your skin is crawling

Caution

* Magnesium should be used cautiously by patients with an impaired kidney function. * Taking over 3000mg may have laxative effect. * Taking over 5000mg may cause nausea, calcium/phosphorus imbalance. * If you get muscle cramps that you didn't have before taking magnesium, you may need less magnesium or more calcium. * The correct ratio of calcium to magnesium must be maintained. Generally, it is 2 times as much calcium as magnesium. For example, take 200mg calcium with 100mg magnesium. Women need a higher magnesium percentage, often equal to that of calcium. For example 200mg calcium/200mg of magnesium.

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Meet Dr. Leon Epstein, Head of the Division of Neurology at Lurie Children’s – Video

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Meet Dr. Leon Epstein, Head of the Division of Neurology at Lurie Children #39;s
Dr. Leon Epstein is the head of the Division of Neurology at Ann Robert H. Lurie Children #39;s Hospital of Chicago. The division is ranked #4 in the nation by US News World Report. His special...

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Meet Dr. Leon Epstein, Head of the Division of Neurology at Lurie Children's - Video