Xeroxing the Brand

The informal Mars Underground group served as a model for other planetary scientists who wanted NASA to take their proposals seriously. Their strategy was considered so successful that, in 1989, another group of astronomers Xeroxed the brand," igniting a push for a mission to the outer solar system. Their name? The Pluto Underground. Many of its founding members are now scientists working on NASAs New Horizons mission. That initiative, led by Principal Investigator Alan Stern (and Pluto Underground member), flew past Pluto in 2015 and the Kuiper Belt object Arrokoth in 2019.

In the 2000s, another unofficial-yet-passionate band of scientists replicated the Mars Underground model this time to advocate for sending humans to asteroids before attempting a journey to Mars. The so-called Asteroid Underground studied the science objectives, engineering requirements, and costs of such a mission. Eventually, in 2013, the seemingly wild idea became the space agencys official policy with the Asteroid Redirect Mission (ARM). However, the Trump administration defunded ARM in 2017 in favor of a Moon-first policy.

Its been nearly 40 years since the Mars Underground formed, and its founders have risen to become some of the most prominent voices in todays push for space exploration.

Mars Underground co-founder Penelope Boston, who helped organize The Case for Mars conferences, went on to launch a cave studies program at the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology. In fact, she helped pioneer the study of life in Earths caves, paving the way for similar work on Mars someday. And in 2016, Boston became the director of NASAs Astrobiology Institute in California.

In 1998, longtime Mars Underground member Robert Zubrin used the group as inspiration to launch the Mars Society. Today, the group boasts thousands of members and hosts annual Mars conferences with high-profile attendees, including Elon Musk.

Chris McKay, who was still working on his Ph.D. when he co-founded Mars Underground, has had a storied career as an astrobiologist, studying organisms living in extreme environments on Earth for insights into life on Mars. These days, hes a senior planetary scientist at NASA, where hes actively involved in planning future Mars missions including eventual human trips. McKay now advocates for putting humans back on the Moon, which he and others believe is a necessary stepping stone to Mars. He is also a champion for a robotic sample return mission to Mars.

And thats exactly what NASA plans to do. This summer, theyll launch the most sophisticated Mars rover ever built, which will both search for past life and collect martian soil samples. Meanwhile, the space agency has hired a host of private spaceflight companies for its Artemis program, which NASA hopes will return astronauts to the Moon by 2024. From there, its on to Mars in the following decades.

Although the dreams of Mars Underground members might have taken far longer to come true than they would have hoped, with each passing year their ambitious vision of being an interplanetary species is marching toward reality.

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How 'Mars Undergound' sparked a return to the Red Planet - Astronomy Magazine

The strange behaviour of a duo of stars in a dense cluster called Terzan 5 located 19,000 light-years from Earth has caught the eye of an international team of astronomers.

We observed an exotic stellar binary system using both X-rays and radio waves, said University of Alberta astrophysicist Craig Heinke. Only 10 years ago, we knew of neutron stars that were pulsars, and neutron stars that accreted matter from companion stars, but none that switched back and forth.

The scientists of the Milky-way ATCA and VLA Exploration of Radio-sources in Clusters (MAVERIC) team observed the unusual switching in the new image, using data compiled by NASAs Chandra X-ray Observatory over nearly 15 years.

The stellar system was described in a 2018 study led by U of A physics PhD graduate Arash Bahramian, now at Curtin University. In the system, a normal star and dense neutron star orbit each other, and at times, stellar material is seen to be absorbed by the denser neutron stara phenomenon sometimes referred to as stellar vampirism.

But unusually, at other times, the flow stops and the neutron stars strong magnetic field accelerates particles to near light-speed, generating strong radio emissionsknown as a pulsar.

We know of only a handful of these stars that switch between states, called transitional millisecond pulsars, said U of A astrophysicist Gregory Sivakoff, who is a co-investigator on the MAVERIC team.

We had long thought that neutron stars had to eat material from a nearby star to spin up to such fast speeds, but it was only with transitional millisecond pulsars that we found the silver bullet that proved our hypothesis was likely true.

Only three confirmed examples of these identity-changing systems are known, explained Sivakoff. The first was discovered in 2013 using the orbiting Chandra telescope and several other X-ray and radio telescopeswhich he said makes the new image of the system all the more exciting.

The first of these systems discovered elicited enormous excitement, as they represented a holy grail of X-ray astronomy: to show that accreting neutron stars can turn on as pulsars, said Heinke.

But they have also generated a host of other questions, and its been very hard to find systems like this to learn more. This find opens up a new way to search for these objects as we learn more about them, and hopefully to start to unravel their mysteries.

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Astronomers capture rare cosmic 'Jekyll and Hyde' behaviour in double star system 19,000 light-years away - Folio - University of Alberta

Embry-Riddle faculty member Dr. Matt Haffner, working with lead researchers at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, recently co-authored an important advancement in astronomy the first-ever measurement of Fermi Bubbles in the visible light spectrum, refining our understanding of the properties of these mysterious blobs emanating from the Milky Way.

The research team from the University of WisconsinMadison, UWWhitewater and Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University measured the emission of light from hydrogen and nitrogen in the Fermi Bubbles at the same position as recent ultraviolet absorption measurements made by the Hubble Telescope.

We combined those two measurements of emission and absorption to estimate the density, pressure and temperature of the ionized gas. And that lets us better understand where this gas is coming from, says Dhanesh Krishnarao, lead author of the new study and an astronomy graduate student at UWMadison.

The researchers announced their findings June 2 at the 236th meeting of the American Astronomical Society, which was held virtually for the first time since 1899 in response to the Covid-19 pandemic.

Extending 25,000 light years away both above and below the center of the Milky Way, the Fermi Bubbles were discovered in 2010 by the Fermi Gamma Ray Telescope. These faint but highly energetic outflows of gas are racing away from the center of the Milky Way at millions of miles per hour. But while their origin has been inferred to date back several million years ago, the events that produced the bubbles remain a mystery.

Now, with new measurements of the density and pressure of the ionized gas, the researchers can test models of the Fermi Bubbles against observations.

The other significant thing is that we now have the possibility of measuring the density and pressure and the velocity structure in many locations, with the all-sky WHAM telescope, says Bob Benjamin, a professor of astronomy at UWWhitewater and co-author of the study. We can do an extensive mapping effort across the Fermi Bubbles above and below the plane of the galaxy to see if the if the models that people have developed are holding up. Because unlike the UV data, we're not limited to just specific lines of sight.

Matt Haffner, professor of Physics and Astronomy at Embry-Riddle and a co-author of the report, says the work demonstrates the usefulness of the WHAM telescope, developed at UWMadison, to tell us more about the workings of the Milky Way. The central region of our home galaxy has long been difficult to study because of interfering gas, but WHAM has provided new opportunities to gather the kind of information we have for distant galaxies.

There are regions of the galaxy we can target with very sensitive instruments like WHAM to get this kind of new information toward the center that previously we are only able to do in the infrared and radio, says Haffner. We can make comparisons to other galaxies by making the same kind of measurements towards the center of the Milky Way.

*This article was written by Eric Hamilton and first published by the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Posted In: Research | Space

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First Optical Measurements of Milky Ways Fermi Bubbles Probe Their Origin - ERAU News

By Sonia Ramirez, Chron.com / Houston Chronicle

Jupiter and Saturn took center stage across the night sky last night as they formed a triangle with the waning, gibbous moon-meaning they shared the same celestial longitude, said space.com.

Jupiter and Saturn took center stage across the night sky last night as they formed a triangle with the waning, gibbous moon-meaning they shared the same celestial longitude, said space.com.

Jupiter and Saturn took center stage across the night sky last night as they formed a triangle with the waning, gibbous moon-meaning they shared the same celestial longitude, said space.com.

Jupiter and Saturn took center stage across the night sky last night as they formed a triangle with the waning, gibbous moon-meaning they shared the same celestial longitude, said space.com.

A rendezvous between Jupiter, Saturn and the moon lit up the night skies this week

A Houston-area stargazer captured a rare rendezvous between Jupiter, Saturn, and the moon on June 8.

Houston's night sky was the perfect backdrop for last night's midnight showing of Jupiter and Saturn as they formed a triangle with Earth's moon.

STRAWBERRY MOON PART OF BEST NIGHT SKY EVENTS IN 2020: Look up: A full 'strawberry moon' rises tonight

"The waning, gibbous moon was in conjunction with Jupiter meaning they shared the same celestial longitude," said space.com.

The celestial event streaming across the night began its ascension on June 7 into the early morning hours on June 8.

Alyssa Croft was able to capture photos in the slideshow of the stellar event around 12:30 a.m. on June 8 from her backyard in Clear Lake.

"As Jupiter continues to catch up with Saturn preparing for their once-in-20-years great conjunction in December 2020 the waning moon comes by, this time passing 2.2 degrees south of Jupiter on June 8 and 2.7 degrees south of Saturn on June 9," said earthsky.com.

ON HOUSTONCHRONICLE.COM: SpaceX adds visors to its Starlink satellites to minimize impact on astronomers

The extraordinary collaboration of these celestial planets is part of the best night sky events of June 2020, such as the full "strawberry moon," that made its appearance on Friday, June 5.

The "Super conjunction" of Jupiter and Saturn on December 21, 2020, will be the final astronomy event of the year.

Touted as one of the most impressive events, Jupiter and Saturn make an extremely close encounter following the first sunset of winter, according to the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada."The closest they have been since 1623."

If you were able to capture a photo of the amazing night sky showing of the trio coming together, share it in the comments below.

STAY INFORMED: Sign up to receive breaking news alerts delivered to your email here.

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A rendezvous between Jupiter, Saturn and the moon lit up the night skies this week - Chron

There's an unusual paradox hampering research into parts of the Milky Way. Dense gas blocks observations of the galactic core, and it can be difficult to observe in visible light from our vantage point.

But distant galaxies don't always present the same obstacles. So in some ways, we can observe distant galaxies better than we can observe our own.

In order to gain a better understanding of the Galactic Center (GC) and the Interstellar Medium (ISM), a team of astronomers used a telescope called theWisconsin H-Alpha Mapper(WHAM) to look into the core of the Milky Way in part of the optical light spectrum.

The team of researchers focused their efforts on two features of the Milky Way, called theFermi Bubbles. The Fermi Bubbles are massive outbursts of high-energy gas emanating from the galactic core.

They're called Fermi Bubbles because they were discovered in 2010 by theFermi Gamma-Ray Space Telescope. These bubbles are enormous, extending a total of about 50,000 light years from the disk of the Milky Way, and they're travelling at millions of miles per hour.

A paper presenting their observations is titled "Discovery of High-Velocity H-Alpha Above Galactic Center: Testing Models of the Fermi Bubble." Lead author of the work is Dhanesh Krishnarao, a grad student in astronomy at the UW Wisconsin. The findings were presented at the 236th meeting of the American Astronomical Society, and have been submitted to The Astrophysical Journal Letters.

Previous to this work, some observations of the Fermi Bubbles were made in UV, by examining the light from distant quasars as it passed through the gas. While those observations extended scientists' understanding of the bubbles, they had limitations.

They could only be made on specific sight lines, while WHAM is an all-sky telescope. Those previous observations couldn't measure the velocity, temperature, and density of the gas.

But WHAM takes a different approach. Like its name says, it can observe Hydrogen-Alpha atoms. In anH-Alphaatom, an electron has jumped from the third energy level to the second energy level. That leaves a spectral line that's the brightest hydrogen spectral line in optical light.

A simplified Rutherford-Bohr model of the H-Alpha process. (JabberWok/CC BY-SA 3.0)

ABOVE:When an electron (green) jumps down one energy level from n=3 to n=2, it produces a photon with a bright spectral line in visible light.

Matt Haffner is a Professor of Astronomy and Physics at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, and one of this paper's co-authors. In a press release, Haffner pointed out how the WHAM telescope is helping astronomers make progress in understanding the Milky Way's core region. Gas blocks our view of that region in a way that distant galaxies don't.

"There are regions of the galaxy we can target with very sensitive instruments like WHAM to get this kind of new information toward the center that previously we were only able to do in the infrared and radio," says Haffner.

"We can make comparisons to other galaxies by making the same kind of measurements towards the center of the Milky Way."

The scientists behind this research also observed the nitrogen emission lines in the Fermi Bubbles. They lined their observations up with recent Hubble observations of UV light at the same position, and combined them.

In a press release, lead author Krishnarao said "We combined those two measurements of emission and absorption to estimate the density, pressure and temperature of the ionized gas, and that lets us better understand where this gas is coming from."

In their paper the authors write "Wisconsin H-Alpha Mapper (WHAM) observations reveal high velocity H alpha and [N II] 6584 emissionlines in the same direction and velocity as ultraviolet absorption line features that have been previously associated with the biconical gamma-ray lobes known as the Fermi Bubbles."

Astronomers think that whatever happened at the Milky Way's core to create the Fermi Bubbles, it happened several millions of years ago. Some researchers think that Sgr A*, the supermassive black hole at the center of the galaxy, drew a massive cloud of hydrogen into its accretion disk, causing an enormous burst of energy. But this study wasn't trying to determine the cause.

Now that the researchers have data for the density, velocity, and temperature of the gas in the Fermi Bubbles, they can test that data against different models.

"The other significant thing is that we now have the possibility of measuring the density and pressure and the velocity structure in many locations," with the all-sky WHAM telescope, says Bob Benjamin, a professor of astronomy at UWWhitewater and co-author of the study.

"We can do an extensive mapping effort across the Fermi Bubbles above and below the plane of the galaxy to see if the models that people have developed are holding up. Because, unlike the ultraviolet data, we're not limited to just specific lines of sight."

In their paper the authors explain that "These optical spectra provide a new avenue to constrain both the physical conditions of the ionized gas that has been associated with the Fermi Bubbles as well the radiation field emergingfrom the Galactic Center region and within the Fermi Bubbles."

In the conclusion of their paper the authors describe some of their findings. They say their findings indicate a gas temperature of 8900 2700 K. They also point out that the high thermal pressure they found is "comparable to, but still greater than, those predicted by models of a hot gas halo inthe inner Galaxy or of a Fermi Bubble shell."

But even though these findings are very detailed, they don't conclusively show what caused the Fermi Bubbles. The team says that WHAM has more to give when it comes to studying them, though. And just like in this study, future observations can also be combined with existing Hubble observations to expand our understanding.

Gamma and X-ray emitting Fermi Bubbles above and below the plane of the Milky Way. (NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center)

"With future observations, WHAM can trace emission associated with the Fermi Bubbles both spatially and kinematically at large scales. Additionally, other pointed observations towards distant UV bright sources with existing HST spectra can provide sensitive columndensity profiles of multiple species across different regions of the southern and northern Fermi Bubbles."

So, maybe one day we'll finally know what happened a few million years ago at the center of the Milky Way, to form these giant bubbles.

This article was originally published by Universe Today. Read the original article.

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Astronomers Pinpoint The Origin of Huge Gas Bubbles Flowing Out of The Milky Way - ScienceAlert

Astronomers have finally classified a tremendous space explosion first noticed in 2018 - an event so bright, it was thought to have originated much closer to us than we eventually realised. Thanks to two additional discoveries, it now belongs to an entirely new class of giant space explosions.

These bursts of energy are extremely powerful and extremely fast, blasting vast amounts of matter into space at intense velocities. Astronomers have named the new class Fast Blue Optical Transients, or FBOTs.

The 2018 event, nicknamed "the Cow" (AT2018cow), was eventually traced to a galaxy 200 million light-years away, which was a surprise given its exceptional brightness. Since then, it's been outstripped by two even bigger explosions of the same kind, bringing the total of known FBOTs to three.

The two new ones were found in archival data from visible-light all-sky surveys, and followed up with more observations.

They are ZTF18abvkwla, or "the Koala", which was found in data from 2018 observations in a galaxy 3.4 billion light-years away; and CRTS-CSS161010 J045834-081803, or CSS161010, found in 2016 data from a galaxy 500 million light-years away. Two new papers describe the Koala and CSS161010.

To put into perspective just how intense these explosions are, the Cow was at least 10 times more powerful than a regular supernova. The Koala and CSS161010 were more powerful again, but clear similarities exist between all three events.

"When I reduced the data, I thought I made a mistake," said astronomer Anna Ho of Caltech, who led the Koala study. "The 'Koala' resembled the 'Cow' but the radio emission was ten times brighter - as bright as a gamma-ray burst!"

CSS161010 was even more jaw-dropping. The follow-up observations in radio and X-ray wavelengths revealed that the object ejected vast amounts of stellar material into space at a whopping 55 percent of the speed of light.

"This was unexpected," said astronomer Deanne Coppejans of Northwestern University, who led the study on CSS161010, and is apparently a master of understatement.

"We know of energetic stellar explosions that can eject material at almost the speed of light, specifically gamma-ray bursts, but they only launch a small amount of mass - about 1 millionth the mass of the Sun.

"CSS161010 launched 1 to 10 percent the mass of the Sun to relativistic speeds - evidence that this is a new class of transient!"

All three explosions share similarities. They look a lot like supernova explosions, but they flare up and fade again incredibly quickly - way more quickly than normal supernovae. They're also incredibly hot, which gives the light a bluer tint, compared to other supernovae.

Because they're so brief, it's hard to get a handle on what causes them. In January 2019, astronomers narrowed down the Cow to two most likely scenarios:a black hole devouring a white dwarf; or an unusual kind of core-collapse supernova leading to the formation of a neutron star or a black hole.

Neither of those two scenarios can be ruled out at this stage, but the astronomers believe what we're looking at here is a very rare kind of supernova.

In the core-collapse supernovae we see more commonly, the supernova blast sheds a spherical shell of stellar material. Sometimes these supernovae also produce a rotating accretion disc of material around the collapsed core that powers extreme, relativistic jets from the poles that propagate gamma rays - what we call a gamma-ray burst.

FBOT explosions, according to the astronomers' model, would also have such a disc and jets, but surrounded by a really dense cloud of material that's not present in normal supernovae. This cloud could have been created by a binary companion stripping the supernova progenitor star of material.

However the cloud is produced, it's the reason for the extreme brightness astronomers have detected. When the shockwave from the supernova collides with the cloud, it produces an extremely fast, hot, bright flash across multiple wavelengths.

The next step in the research will be to pore over more data to potentially identify more such bright flashes, which previously may have been overlooked as glitches. This could help astronomers narrow down even further which scenario is producing these explosions.

But one thing is clear: whatever it is, it's wild.

"We thought we knew what produced the fastest outflows in nature," said astronomer Raffaella Margutt of Northwestern University.

"We thought there were only two ways to produce them - by collapsing a massive star with a gamma ray burst or two neutron stars merging. We thought that was it. With this study, we are introducing a third way to launch these outflows. There is a new beast out there, and it's able to produce the same energetic phenomenon."

The two papers have been published in The Astrophysical Journal and The Astrophysical Journal Letters.

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It's 2020, And Astronomers Have Just Found a New Class of Massive Space Explosions - ScienceAlert

THE DEVIANTS WAR The Homosexual vs. the United States of America By Eric Cervini

If the L.G.B.T.Q. movement had saints, a Jewish homosexual atheist scientist named Franklin Kameny would have an exalted place in the pantheon. Most people believe the 1969 Stonewall riots gave birth to militant gay politics. But for almost a decade before Stonewall, Kameny boldly challenged the reigning orthodoxy that homosexuality was a mental illness and led an audacious campaign against the federal governments ban on employing gay workers. Brilliant, fearless, cantankerous and unstoppable, he was lionized in his old age by a movement that by the Obama era had achieved victories not even he could have anticipated. In Eric Cervini, a young historian of L.G.B.T.Q. politics and the author of the exhaustively researched and vividly written biography The Deviants War, Kameny has found his hagiographer.

Born into a middle-class family in Queens in 1925, Kameny showed his smarts and determination early on. When he was 4, he taught himself to read and decided to become a scientist. By 6 he had set his sights on astronomy, and as a teenager he set up a telescope at home to study the stars. After seeing combat in World War II, he earned a Ph.D. from Harvard, taught astronomy for a year at Georgetown, then put his training to work for the Army Map Service. His credentials and drive seemed to promise a rewarding career when the United States began scrambling to catch up after the Soviet Union put Sputnik in orbit.

His ambition, though, soon collided with government policies, enacted in the 1940s and early 1950s, that prohibited homosexuals from working for the government or many private employers with a federal contract. The ban was only one element of a larger system that began to be put in place in the 1930s to exclude homosexuals from full citizenship and membership in the community; it included censorship rules preventing Hollywood films from featuring queer characters, and liquor regulations preventing bars, restaurants or cabarets in many states from employing or serving homosexuals. Most worrisome to gay men were the threat of being arrested by the police, who kept gay bars and hookup spots under surveillance, and the F.B.I.s growing capacity to funnel arrest records to federal agencies conducting employee security checks.

[ This book was one of our most anticipated titles of June. See the full list. ]

In 1957, such policing cost Kameny his government career only a few months after it began. The Army Map Service fired him when its personnel office learned he had been arrested in California a year earlier while cruising for sex in a public washroom. Thousands of men and women lost their government jobs when security investigations uncovered evidence or allegations that they were gay.

Most tried to move on. But Kameny discovered that almost every job in astronomy required a security clearance, which left him no choice but to fight if he wanted to salvage his career. In his fast-paced account of Kamenys budding war with the federal government, Cervini describes him going from one office to the next and writing to one official after another, moving up the chain of command to the secretary of the Army, the chair of the Civil Service Commission, congressional leaders and the president himself. Like most gay people in his situation, at first he dissembled or pretended to be straight, since that was the only way to get around the ban. But when it became clear that this tactic would not work, he began challenging the anti-gay ban more directly, in administrative and then legal appeals, all the way to the Supreme Court. The court, like every other authority, refused to reconsider his case.

Identity-based movements dont just emerge out of thin air; people typically organize around an identity because the state and society have insisted that the identity disqualifies them from full legal and cultural citizenship. By the end of Kamenys ordeal, he was jobless and barely eating or paying his rent. But headstrong as ever, he took on a new mission: to end the government policy that had turned his life upside down.

In 1961, he co-founded the Mattachine Society of Washington. More than a dozen such homophile groups had been established in cities around the country in the previous decade. Most were dedicated to helping people who had been arrested or lost jobs, to supporting research on homosexuality, and to cultivating psychiatrists, lawyers and clergy members who were granted more authority to speak in defense of homosexuals than homosexuals themselves were.

[ Read an excerpt from The Deviants War. ]

Kameny advocated a more militant approach. Inspired by the direct-action tactics of the black civil rights movement, he argued that the gay rights movement needed to speak for itself and confront official discrimination head-on. In the early 1960s, he served as adviser to a number of gay civil servants who challenged the loss of their jobs, became the first openly gay person to testify before a (supremely hostile) congressional committee and helped organize the first gay picket in front of the White House. In 1971, he became the first openly gay candidate for Congress. Most important, in Cervinis reckoning, he originated the strategy that had become standard by the 1970s and remains so to this day: finding openly L.G.B.T.Q. plaintiffs willing to risk public exposure by filing lawsuits against the discrimination they faced.

He also refused to accept that homosexuality was a mental illness or immoral. As a scientist not intimidated by arcane theories, he had only scorn for psychiatrists methodology and felt supremely confident in challenging their theories of homosexual pathology. (The biologist Alfred Kinsey had much the same attitude.) In 1968, inspired by the black power slogan Black Is Beautiful, Kameny coined the slogan Gay Is Good, which a national conference of homophile organizations adopted as its motto. A year before Stonewall is supposed to have launched the movement for gay pride, the conference attendees embraced the slogan to encourage in gay people feelings of pride, self-esteem, self-confidence and self-worth these feelings being essential to true human dignity.

Kameny is such a towering figure that he has already been featured prominently in several pioneering studies, including Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities (1983), by John DEmilio; The Lavender Scare (2004), by David K. Johnson; and Hoovers War on Gays (2015), by Douglas M. Charles. Their accounts of Kamenys dismissal and subsequent crusade against the government, while briefer than Cervinis, are often shrewder in probing Kamenys motivations and assessing his personal and political development.

Cervini does shed new light on Kamenys encounters with the police and his initial reluctance to go public as a gay crusader. Nor does he flinch from showing that the considerable ego that emboldened Kameny to wage war against his government sometimes made him impossible to deal with in homophile organizations, where he developed a reputation for insisting on control and brooking no dissent. But Cervini becomes almost reverential when he makes exaggerated claims about Kamenys singular role in changing L.G.B.T.Q. life and consciousness.

Both the strengths and weaknesses of The Deviants War are tied to its relentless adherence to chronology. The narratives rapid clip is engrossing and succeeds in making readers feel they are witnessing history as it unfolds. But it often keeps Cervini from pausing long enough to weigh the relative significance of events, draw explanatory connections among them or analyze the reasoning behind the sometimes perplexing actions of key figures.

Cervinis devotion to colorful detail helps to flesh out previous accounts. He provides vivid descriptions of the alliances and fractures among lesbian and gay male activists and of the movements pitched battles over tactics and the politics of respectability. He gives you a ringside seat for some of Kamenys fiercest confrontations with security officers and elected officials at the Pentagon, the Civil Service Commission and the halls of Congress. And he takes you to the homophiles first picket lines before beautifully evoking the first march commemorating the Stonewall riots, in June 1970.

There are few revelations for historians in this book. But its riveting account of Kamenys struggle will be eye-opening for anyone keen to have a crash course on L.G.B.T.Q. politics in the tumultuous decade leading up to Stonewall.

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The Brilliant Astronomer Who Devised New Tactics to Fight Anti-Gay Bias - The New York Times

Most people with any interest in astronomy know about the Crab Nebula. Its a supernova remnant in the constellation Taurus, and its image is all over the place. Google Hubble images and its right there with other crowd favorites, like the Pillars of Creation.

The Crab Nebula is one of the most-studied objects in astronomy. Its the brightest source of gamma rays in the sky, and that fact is being used to establish the function of a new telescope called the Schwarschild-Couder Telescope.

The supernova that left the Crab Nebula behind exploded about one thousand years ago, in 1054. Its called SN 1054, and Chinese astronomers recorded the event. A handful of other cultures around the world also took note of it. For some reason, there was scant or no mention of it in Europe at the time.

The Crab Nebula itself is the expanding gas shell expelled by the exploding star, moving outward at 1,500 kilometres per second (930mi/s), or 0.5% of thespeed of light. Inside the nebula is the Crab Pulsar. When the Crab Pulsar was first discovered in 1968, it was the first time that a pulsar was connected to a supernova.

The Crab Pulsar emits an outflowing relativistic wind that generates synchrotron radiation. As that radiation strikes the material in the surrounding nebula, it generates the powerful gamma ray emissions.

And this is where the newly-developed prototype Schwarzschild-Couder Telescope (pSCT) comes in.

Weve established this new technology, which will measure gamma rays with extraordinary precision, enabling future discoveries.

The pSCT is a novel telescope design being developed by the Cherenkov Telescope Array consortium. The CT Array will feature over one hundred ground-based telescopes observing in the gamma-ray part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The pSCT is key to that effort, and these observation of gamma rays from the Crab Nebula are a tantalizing taste of whats to come.

If youre thinking, Wait a second. Gamma rays cant reach the Earth, youre right. The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, and the Fermi Gamma Ray Space Telescope, did their work in Earth orbit, above the interfering atmosphere. Thats because the gamma rays cant reach the Earths surface.

But when the gamma rays interact with the atmosphere, they produce whats called Cherenkov Radiation. And Cherenkov Radiation can be observed.

The Cherenkov Radiation from gamma rays striking the atmosphere is far too faint to be seen with human eyes. But the new pSCT is an innovative piece of technology, designed with the Cherenkov Radiation in mind. By detecting the cascade of Cherenkov Radiation created when gamma rays strike Earths atmosphere, researchers can learn about the gamma rays, and their sources.

The Crab Nebula is the brightest steady source of TeV, or very-high-energy, gamma rays in the sky, so detecting it is an excellent way of proving the pSCT technology, said Justin Vandenbroucke, Associate Professor at University of Wisconsin. Very-high-energy gamma rays are the highest energy photons in the universe and can unveil the physics of extreme objects including black holes and possibly dark matter, Vandenbroucke said in a press release.

The development of the pSCT and the CT Array promises to start a new age in gamma ray observations and gamma ray astronomy.

Weve established this new technology, which will measure gamma rays with extraordinary precision, enabling future discoveries, said Vandenbroucke. Gamma-ray astronomy is already at the heart of the new multi-messenger astrophysics, and the SCT technology will make it an even more important player.

High-energy gamma-ray astronomy is a relatively young field. Gamma rays have photon energies above 100 keV (kiloelectron volts.) They can range from there up to what are called ultra-high-energy gamma rays, where the photon energy can be higher than one-hundred TeV. These rays were only confirmed to exist in 2019, and the center of the Crab Nebula was their source.

Just over three decades ago, TeV gamma rays were first detected in the universe, from the Crab Nebula, on the same mountain where the pSCT sits today, said Vandenbroucke. That was a real breakthrough, opening a cosmic window with light that is a trillion times more energetic than we can see with our eyes. Today, were using two mirror surfaces instead of one, and state-of-the-art sensors and electronics to study these gamma rays with exquisite resolution.

The pSCT is a dual-mirrored version of previous Cherenkov telescopes. The dual mirrors represent a big technological leap in very-high-energy gamma ray observation. The addition of the secondary mirror allows for better detection of faint gamma ray sources, and for greater image detail.

We have successfully evolved the way gamma-ray astronomy has been done during the past 50 years, enabling studies to be performed in much less time, said Wystan Benbow, Director of VERITAS, another Cherenkov-observing telescope. Several future programs will particularly benefit, including surveys of the gamma-ray sky, studies of large objects like supernova remnants, and searches for multi-messenger counterparts to astrophysical neutrinos and gravitational wave events.

We first proposed the idea of applying this optical system to TeV gamma-ray astronomy nearly 15 years ago, and my colleagues and I built a team in the US and internationally to prove that this technology could work, said Prof. Vladimir Vassiliev, Principal Investigator, pSCT. What was once a theoretical limit to this technology is now well within our grasp, and continued improvements to the technology and the electronics will further increase our capability to detect gamma rays at resolutions and rates we once only ever dreamed of.

Whats exciting about the SCT is the way it can be used to study issues in cosmology and astrophysics. This gamma-ray detection from an understood gamma-ray source was just a test, a calibration, and if the scientists quoted here are excited, its easy to see why.

A driving question in cosmology concerns the nature of dark matter. One of the hypotheses for the nature of dark matter is WIMPs, Weakly Interacting Massive Particles. (Also called neutralinos.) Some theories state that when WIMPs interact, they annihilate, producing gamma rays. An array of SCTs can be used to probe areas in space where dark matter is very dense. And the SCT is sensitive enough to detect these signals.

Will the SCT help us solve the mystery of dark matter? Scientists are hopeful that, combined with other efforts like the Large Hadron Collider and subterranean WIMP detectors, they can make real progress.

The pSCT is located at the Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory in Amado, Arizona. The consortium behind itcalled the Cherenkov Telescope Array Consortium is an international effort to develop gamma-ray astronomy with ground-based observatories. It consists of 11 separate countries, and the ESO.

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Gamma Rays Detected Coming From the Crab Nebula - Universe Today

Tuesday, April 28At magnitude 8.4, Vesta is within easy reach of most binoculars. To find it, locate Aldebaran, the brightest star in Taurus, and draw an imaginary line northeast. First, youll hit the open star cluster NGC 1647, which contains several dozen scattered 8th- to 11th- magnitude stars. Continue that line roughly the same distance to the northeast and begin scanning for Vesta, which is slowly advancing through a region with few background stars. Try this exercise two or three nights in a row to find the spot that has moved thats the asteroid youre looking for.

Wednesday, April 29Mars remains an ideal morning target to catch before sunrise. The Red Planet glows at magnitude 0.4 in the southeastern sky, positioned midway between two 4th-magnitude stars: Iota () and Gamma () Capricorni. Mars is nearly 20 above the horizon an hour before sunrise.

Mars also stands at the center of a planetary gathering. Look west to find Saturn nearly 19 away, with Jupiter just 5 farther in the same direction. These two solar system giants shine at magnitude 0.6 and 2.4, respectively. Telescopic observers and imagers can add a dwarf planet to the mix: Pluto is just 2 southwest of Jupiter, glinting faintly at magnitude 14.

Turn your telescope 30 east of Mars to glimpse magnitude 8 Neptune. The ice giant is still low on the eastern horizon, rising higher as the sky brightens with the coming dawn. See how long you can track it before the bright sky hides it from view.

Thursday, April 30First Quarter Moon occurs at 4:38 P.M. EDT. An hour after sunset, our satellite stands high in the southwestern sky in the faint constellation Cancer the Crab. In the moonlit sky, you might have better luck spotting Gemini the Twins and their bright luminaries, Castor and Pollux, to the west. Look east of the Moon to find Leo the Lion, with his brightest star Regulus, and follow the ecliptic farther east to reach Virgo the Maiden, whose brightest star is Spica. This blue-white magnitude 1 star is not one star, but two however, the stars are so close that they cannot be split visually. Instead, astronomers discovered Spicas dual nature by noticing that as one star orbits the other, gravitys effects shift the light we see from the star slightly red and then blue over time.

The larger of the two, Spica A, is roughly seven times wider than our Sun and 10 times as massive. Most of the light we see from the star comes from this component. The smaller Spica B is a little less than four times wider than the Sun and seven times as massive.

Friday, May 1 The Eta Aquariids have been slowly ramping up since last week and will peak in another few days. Its not one of the years best meteor showers, due to its low-altitude radiant in the Northern Hemisphere and low predicted rate of just 10 meteors per hour at its peak. But with Mars hanging nearby and a still-crescent Moon in the sky, its worth trying to catch a few shooting stars this morning.

Find the darkest skies possible and spend some time scanning overhead. Try concentrating on a spot away from the constellation Aquarius, where the showers meteors originate. You may only see five or so Eta Aquariid meteors an hour, but this is also a great chance to relax beneath the stars and get to know the morning sky much better.

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The Sky This Week from April 24 to May 1 - Astronomy Magazine

Countinguniverses ought to be easy. By definition, you can stop at 1.

Troubleis, definitions change. A century ago, the universe was defined as the MilkyWay galaxy. Heretics who disagreed had long been ridiculed until sciencestaged what became known as the Great Debate, on April 26, 100 years ago. Onthat date, American astronomers HarlowShapley and HeberCurtis articulated opposing views on the scope of the cosmos.

Todayastronomers know that the Milky Way, huge as it is, is a mere drop in thecosmic bucket. Just as the sun is only one of 100 billion or so stars swirlingwithin the Milky Ways pinwheel disk, the Milky Way is only one of hundreds ofbillions of such galaxies inhabiting a vast, expanding bubble of space.

Butin 1920, conventional wisdom dictated that the Milky Way was alone. Mostexperts insisted that the fuzzy patches of light known as nebulae residedwithin the Milky Way. Nebulae with a spiral structure might be solar systems inthe making, some astronomers suggested.

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Othersinsisted that the nebulae were far, far away, well beyond the Milky Waysborders. In fact, the heretics argued, the nebulae (at least some) containedstars in quantities comparable to our galaxy, and deserved recognition asisland universes.

Actually,the island universe idea had been a popular explanation for the nebulae in themid-19th century. (American astronomer OrmsbyMacKnight Mitchel coined the island universe label inthe 1840s, a translation from a German article referring to the nebulae as Weltinseln.)But by centurys end, the astronomical consensus had affirmed the Milky Way asthe sole and rightful universe. Irish astronomer and author Agnes Clerkedeclared in 1890 that no competent thinker believed the nebulae to be galaxiescomparable to the Milky Way. She later wrote that the island universe theoryhad passed into the realm of discarded and half-forgotten speculations.

Butduring the first two decades of the 20th century, new astronomical observationsraised doubts. Curtis, for one, maintained that the evidence favored islanduniverses. But Shapley insisted that the nebulae could not be far enough awayto be outside the Milky Way. He cited measurements (by Adriaan van Maanen) ofmotion of the spiral arms within some nebulae; such motion would beundetectable if the nebulae were actually distant galaxies.

In1919, leaders of the National Academy of Sciences decided it would be fun to holda debate on the dispute at the academys meeting the following April.

Technically,the topic of the debate was to be on the distance scale of the universe. Onthat issue, Curtis was the conservative and Shapley was the heretic. Curtismaintained the more traditional view that the visible Milky Way stretched onlyabout 30,000 light-years across at most, and was possibly much smaller. Shapleythought that the Milky Way had a diameter of 300,000 light-years (much bigger eventhan todays estimate of roughly 100,000 light-years or so).

AlthoughShapleys view of the Milky Ways size was radical, it did support theconsensus view opposing island universes.

If, as Shapley maintained,the Galaxy was much larger than had previously been thought, it would be moredifficult for Curtis to sustain the claim that the spiral nebulae wereindependent island universes, historian Michael Hoskin observed in a 1976 paper analyzing the debate.

Asit turned out, the debate was nothing that CNN would had televised. Eachastronomer just presented a 40-minute talk. Shapley, who went first, read froma typewritten script. Curtis, the better speaker, showed slides, a more powerfulway to make his point.

Shapleyrecounted a potpourri of recent astronomical observations, barely mentioningthe island universe theory. He insisted that Curtis interpretation of the observationsrequired abandoning the very foundations of modern astrophysics.But he acknowledged that if the Milky Way was really small, the island universeidea just maybe could be right.

Ifthe galactic system is as large as I maintain, the spiral nebulae can hardly becomparable galactic systems, Shapley declared. If it is but one-tenth aslarge, theremightbe a good opportunity for the hypothesisthat our galactic system is a spiral nebula, comparable in size with the otherspiral nebulae, all of which would then be island universes of stars.

Curtispresented data supporting his view of a smaller Milky Way, citing variousestimates of its diameter ranging from 10,000 light-years to 30,000light-years. He argued that the analysis of light from spiral nebulae indicatedthat they were clusters of stars (with similar features to the spectrum oflight from the Milky Way itself). The spectrum of the spiral nebulae offers nodifficulties in the island universe theory of the spirals, Curtis stated.Subsequent slides further built the case for the spirals as island universes.

Moredetailed arguments (deviating considerably from the original talks) appearedthe next year inpapers by Shapley and Curtis published jointly under the title TheScale of the Universe in the Bulletin of the National Research Council.Resolution of the debate came two years later: Astronomer Edwin Hubbledemonstrated that the Andromedanebula was truly an island universe full of stars at a distance farexceeding even Shapleys generous estimate of the Milky Ways girth.

Facedwith new findings, Shapley had to concede. When a letter arrived from Hubblereporting the Andromeda results, Shapley remarked: Here is the letter thatdestroyed my universe.

Shapleyhad been misled by van Maanens measurements they simply turned out to bewrong. Shapley said later that van Maanen was his friend, so of course he believed him,astronomer Virginia Trimble commented in a 1995 discussion of the debate.

ButShapley had not been entirely defeated. For on another important point, he wasright, and Curtis was wrong. In his smaller Milky Way, Curtis placed the sunvery near the center, as astronomical consensus dictated. Around the turn ofthe century, astronomer Simon Newcomb had wondered about that consensus, though,pointing out that ancient astronomers believed with equal confidence that theEarth sat at the center of the universe. Shapley declared that Newcomb wasright to be skeptical.

We havebeen victimized by the chance position of the sun near the center of asubordinate system, and misled by the consequent phenomena, to think that weare Gods own appointed, right in the thick of things, Shapley said at the1920 debate in much the same way ancient man was misled, by the rotation ofthe earth to believe that even his little planet was the center of theuniverse.

Today astronomers all know that Shapley was right about the sun; it is substantially displaced from the galactic center. And everybody knows that Curtis was also right: The Milky Way home to sun, Earth and humankind is not a single universe unto itself, but one of a myriad upon myriad of other galaxies no longer known as island universes, as the definition of universe had to be changed.

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A century ago, astronomys Great Debate foreshadowed todays view of the universe - Science News

"Clearly, Fomalhaut b was doing things a bona fide planet should not be doing," Gspr said.

The last straw for Fomalhaut b was when researchers looked at Hubble images from 2014, which revealed the object had vanished altogether. Though there could be reasons why an exoplanet fades, they certainly dont just disappear.

This led researchers to conclude that Fomalhaut b was nothing more than a planetary mirage namely, an energetic cloud of debris blasted from a collision between two large icy objects. Then, as the cloud dispersed, the faux-planet Fomalhaut b dissolved into nothingness. Based on the evolving shape and location of the debris, the researchers estimate the original colliding bodies were each likely a mix of ice and dust measuring about 125 miles (200 kilometers) across.

Unfortunately, Hubble seems to have been late for the main event, as the researchers think the crash happened right before the telescope began observing the system in 2004. But just detecting the results of such a violent cosmic event is exciting, they say. According to the researchers calculations, such a massive collision may only happen once every 200,000 years in a given system.

Astronomers hope to further study the Fomalhaut system with the upcoming the James Webb Space Telescope during its first year of operations. The future observations will hopefully answer questions about Fomalhauts asteroid belt, as well as about any legitimate planets actually orbiting the star.

See the rest here:

Hubble watches a suspected exoplanet disappear before its very eyes - Astronomy Magazine

The Histories by Herodotus (484BC to 425BC) offers a remarkable window into the world as it was known to the ancient Greeks in the mid fifth century BC. Almost as interesting as what they knew, however, is what they did not know. This sets the baseline for the remarkable advances in their understanding over the next few centuries simply relying on what they could observe with their own eyes.

Herodotus claimed that Africa was surrounded almost entirely by sea. How did he know this? He recounts the story of Phoenician sailors who were dispatched by King Neco II of Egypt (about 600BC), to sail around continental Africa, in a clockwise fashion, starting in the Red Sea. This story, if true, recounts the earliest known circumnavigation of Africa, but also contains an interesting insight into the astronomical knowledge of the ancient world.

The voyage took several years. Having rounded the southern tip of Africa, and following a westerly course, the sailors observed the Sun as being on their right hand side, above the northern horizon. This observation simply did not make sense at the time because they didnt yet know that the Earth has a spherical shape, and that there is a southern hemisphere.

A few centuries later, there had been a lot of progress. Aristarchus of Samos (310BC to 230BC) argued that the Sun was the central fire of the cosmos and he placed all of the then known planets in their correct order of distance around it. This is the earliest known heliocentric theory of the solar system.

Unfortunately, the original text in which he makes this argument has been lost to history, so we cannot know for certain how he worked it out. Aristarchus knew the Sun was much bigger than the Earth or the Moon, and he may have surmised that it should therefore have the central position in the solar system.

Nevertheless it is a jawdropping finding, especially when you consider that it wasnt rediscovered until the 16th century, by Nicolaus Copernicus, who even acknowledged Aristarchus during the development of his own work.

One of Aristarchus books that did survive is about the sizes and distances of the Sun and Moon. In this remarkable treatise, Aristarchus laid out the earliest known attempted calculations of the relative sizes and distances to the Sun and Moon.

It had long been observed that the Sun and Moon appeared to be of the same apparent size in the sky, and that the Sun was further away. They realised this from solar eclipses, caused by the Moon passing in front of the Sun at a certain distance from Earth.

Also, at the instant when the Moon is at first or third quarter, Aristarchus reasoned that the Sun, Earth, and Moon would form a right-angled triangle.

As Pythagoras had determined how the lengths of triangles sides were related a couple of centuries earlier, Aristarchus used the triangle to estimate that the distance to the Sun was between 18 and 20 times the distance to the Moon. He also estimated that the size of the Moon was approximately one-third that of Earth, based on careful timing of lunar eclipses.

While his estimated distance to the Sun was too low (the actual ratio is 390), on account of the lack of telescopic precision available at the time, the value for the ratio of the size of the Earth to the Moon is surprisingly accurate (the Moon has a diameter 0.27 times that of Earth).

Today, we know the size and distance to the moon accurately by a variety of means, including precise telescopes, radar observations and laser reflectors left on the surface by Apollo astronauts.

Eratosthenes (276BC to 195 BC) was chief librarian at the Great Library of Alexandria, and a keen experimentalist. Among his many achievements was the earliest known calculation of the circumference of the Earth. Pythagoras is generally regarded as the earliest proponent of a spherical Earth, although apparently not its size. Eratosthenes famous and yet simple method relied on measuring the different lengths of shadows cast by poles stuck vertically into the ground, at midday on the summer solstice, at different latitudes.

The Sun is sufficiently far away that, wherever its rays arrive at Earth, they are effectively parallel, as had previously been shown by Aristarchus. So the difference in the shadows demonstrated how much the Earths surface curved. Eratosthenes used this to estimate the Earths circumference as approximately 40,000km. This is within a couple of percent of the actual value, as established by modern geodesy (the science of the Earths shape).

Later, another scientist called Posidonius (135BC to 51BC) used a slightly different method and arrived at almost exactly the same answer. Posidonius lived on the island of Rhodes for much of his life. There he observed the bright star Canopus would lie very close to the horizon. However, when in Alexandria, in Egypt, he noted Canopus would ascend to some 7.5 degrees above the horizon.

Given that 7.5 degrees is 1/48th of a circle, he multiplied the distance from Rhodes to Alexandria by 48, and arrived at a value also of approximately 40,000km.

The worlds oldest surviving mechanical calculator is the Antikythera Mechanism. The amazing device was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera in 1900.

The device is now fragmented by the passage of time, but when intact it would have appeared as a box housing dozens of finely machined bronze gear wheels. When manually rotated by a handle, the gears span dials on the exterior showing the phases of the Moon, the timing of lunar eclipses, and the positions of the five planets then known (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) at different times of the year. This even accounted for their retrograde motion an illusionary change in the movement of planets through the sky.

We dont know who built it, but it dates to some time between the 3rd and 1st centuries BC, and may even have been the work of Archimedes. Gearing technology with the sophistication of the Antikythera mechanism was not seen again for a thousand years.

Sadly, the vast majority of these works were lost to history and our scientific awakening was delayed by millennia. As a tool for introducing scientific measurement, the techniques of Eratosthenes are relatively easy to perform and require no special equipment, allowing those just beginning their interest in science to understand by doing, experimenting and, ultimately, following in the foot steps some of the first scientists.

One can but speculate where our civilisation might be now if this ancient science had continued unabated.

The rest is here:

Four amazing astronomical discoveries from ancient Greece - The Conversation UK

The Solar System has been here for a long time. So, when 'Oumuamua was spotted in 2017, it was almost a dead cert it wasn't the only object from interstellar space to visit us over that 4.57 billion-year history. Then comet 2I/Borisov showed up last year. That basically clinched it.

But where are the rest of our interstellar visitors? We'll probably find a few more flying in from the wilds in the coming years. And, according to new research, a whole bunch of interstellar asteroids have been hanging out right here in the Solar System for a very long time.

Based on how they move around the Sun, a team of researchers has identified 19 asteroids they think were captured from another star, way back when the Solar System was just a few million years old.

Back then, astronomers believe, the Sun was part of a stellar nursery, a cluster of stars being born close together of the same cloud of gas and dust.

"The close proximity of the stars meant that they felt each others' gravity much more strongly in those early days than they do today," explained astronomer and cosmologist Fathi Namouni of the Observatoire de la Cte d'Azur in France.

"This enabled asteroids to be pulled from one star system to another."

Fathi and his colleague astronomer Helena Morais of the Universidade Estadual Paulista in Brazil found their first permanent interstellar resident in 2018. They were looking into a group of asteroids called the Centaurs, which hang out between Jupiter and Neptune, and often have really weird orbits.

One asteroid called 2015 BZ509 - later named Kaepaokaawela - was on a weirder orbit than most - exactly the same as Jupiter's, but in the opposite direction, or retrograde. If it was native to the Solar System, it should have been travelling in the same direction as everything else, so the team ran simulations to discover its origins.

They found that Kaepaokaawela's most likely origin was interstellar space, and it had been captured into the Solar System 4.5 billion years ago.

In the new study, the team examined Centaurs and trans-Neptunian objects with high orbital inclination relative to the orbital plane of the planets, sometimes bringing them close to a polar orbit. And, like Kaepaokaawela, some of these objects also have retrograde orbits.

"With moderate to high eccentricities, Centaurs' orbits may be inclined by a few degrees with respect to the Solar System's invariable plane to almost 180 resulting in retrograde motion," the researchers wrote in their paper.

"Their orbital features are often taken as a sign of their violent past in the Solar System, a notion reinforced by their so-called instability. If a Centaur orbit is integrated forward or backward in time, it will invariably either hit the Sun, the planets, or be ejected from the Solar System."

The study included 17 Centaurs with orbital inclinations greater than 60 degrees, and two objects that orbit past Neptune, or trans-Neptunian objects. The researchers used the known orbits of these objects to create multiple clones of each one to simulate their orbits back in time - arriving at 4.5 billion years ago.

At this time, the stuff in our Solar System was all more or less in a flat disc around the Sun, leftover from the young star's accretion disc. It should have all been orbiting on around the same plane, and in the same direction.

But, according to the team's simulations, these 19 asteroids weren't a part of that tidy disc. Most of the clones did indeed end up smashing into the Sun or getting kicked out of the Solar System. Fewer ended up smashing into a planet. Even fewer still maintained a stable orbit... however, since those asteroids are here today, they must have beaten the odds, according to this model.

But those that did achieve a stable orbit did not start out in the Sun's disc. Not only were they far beyond the disc's outskirts, but the orbits were perpendicular to it.

This, the researchers said, means that the probability the asteroids were captured by the Sun's gravity from outside the Solar System is higher than the probability they were born here, with the rest of the Solar System's rocks, out of the Sun's leftovers.

Future study of these rocks could help validate the team's findings; from there, they could help us identify more interstellar interlopers, which in turn could help us learn more about the formation of the Solar System, as well as other planetary systems.

"The discovery of a whole population of asteroids of interstellar origin is an important step in understanding the physical and chemical similarities and differences between Solar System-born and interstellar asteroids," Morais said.

"This population will give us clues about the Sun's early birth cluster, how interstellar asteroid capture occurred, and the role that interstellar matter had in chemically enriching the Solar System and shaping its evolution."

The research has been published in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.

Link:

Astronomers Just Identified 19 More Asteroids They Think Are Interstellar - ScienceAlert

Little is more enticing than the prospect of seeing alien worlds around other starsand perhaps one day even closely studying their atmosphere and mapping their surface. Such observations are exceedingly difficult, of course. Although more than 4,000 exoplanets are now known, the vast majority of them are too distant and dim for our best telescopes to discern against the glare of their host star. Exoplanets near our solar system provide easier imaging opportunities, however. And no worlds are nearer to us than those thought to orbit the cool, faint red dwarf Proxima Centaurithe closest star to our sun at 4.2 light-years away.

In 2016 astronomers discovered the first known planet in this system: the roughly Earth-sized Proxima b. But because of its star-hugging 11-day orbit around Proxima Centauri, Proxima b is a poor candidate for imaging. Proxima c, by contrast, offers much better chances. Announced in 2019, based on somewhat circumstantial evidence, the planet remains unconfirmed. If real, it is estimated to be several times more massive than Eartha so-called super Earth or mini Neptuneand to orbit Proxima Centauri at about 1.5 times the span between Earth and the sun. Its size and distance from its star make the world a tempting target for current and near-future exoplanet-imaging projects. Now, in a new preprint paper accepted for publication in the journal Astronomy & Astrophysics, some astronomers say they mightjust might have managed to see Proxima c for the first time.

This planet is extremely interesting because Proxima is a star very close to the sun, says Raffaele Gratton of the Astronomical Observatory of Padova in Italy, who is the studys lead author. The idea was that since this planet is [far] from the star, it is possible that it can be observed in direct imaging. We found a reasonable candidate that looks like we have really detected the planet.

Last year Gratton and his team were first alerted to the possibility of imaging the planet by Mario Damasso of the Astrophysical Observatory of Turin in Italy, who was the lead author of the original paper on Proxima cs possible discovery. Damasso and his colleagues had presented evidence for Proxima cs existence based on its stars telltale wobbling, which they inferred was caused by the pull of an unseen orbiting planet. Confirming a worlds existence in this way requires seeing the same wobble occur againand againin a process that often takes many months or even years. Damasso wondered if there might be another way. Thus, he asked Gratton and his team to look through data from the SPHERE (Spectro-Polarimetric High-Contrast Exoplanet Research) instrument on the European Southern Observatorys Very Large Telescope (VLT) in Chile to see if they could actually see the planet. As soon as our paper on Proxima c was considered for publication, I contacted [Gratton] to discuss the possibility of pushing SPHERE to its limits, Damasso says. The [planetary] system is potentially so cool that it is worthy to try other techniques.

If you squint a bit while staring at the SPHERE data, a picture of the mysterious planet seems to swim into view. By focusing on Proxima cs predicted position and separation from its star within multiple, stacked infrared images from SPHERE, Gratton and his colleagues were able to pick out 19 potential appearances of the planet across several years of routine observations. Of these candidate detections, one stood out as being particularly enticing: it appeared in the images about six times brighter than their noisethat is, unwanted light from artifacts or background stars. Its a possible candidate that has a low probability of being a false alarm, says Emily Rickman of the Geneva Observatory, who is a co-author of the paper.

If that detection is genuine, it poses intriguing questions. The object believed to be the planet would be at least seven times the mass of Earthlarge enough to place it firmly beyond the super Earth category. This would definitely be some kind of mini Neptune, says Sara Seager, a professor of planetary science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, who was not involved in the new paper. The object also appears to be 10 to 100 times brighter than a planet of its mass should be. This luminosity, the study authors reason, couldarise from a large amount of dust surrounding the planet, perhaps in a vast ring system that is three to four times larger than that of Saturn. To some, that situation seems too strange to be true.

It would be a huge ring system around a relatively old star, says astrophysicist Bruce Macintosh of Stanford University, who also was not part of the work. Its certainly possible for things like this to exist. But for your first detection of something like this to have that massive ring system, youd have to postulate a universe in which most Neptune-sized planets have massive ring systems enormously bigger than Saturns. And that seems like an unlikely universe to live in.

If genuine, this detectionthis imagewould have profound implications for our understanding of our nearest neighboring planetary system. It would give us definitive proof of the existence of Proxima c and also provide the angle at which the planet orbits its star, relative to our ownsomething that watching a stars wobbles alone cannot provide. The detection would also all but ensure that we could soon study the planets atmosphere with a new generation of powerful observatories, such as the upcoming European Extremely Large Telescope (E-ELT) and NASAs Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST).

Perhaps more importantly, pinning down Proxima c would also likely reveal the orbital angle of Proxima b, because planets would be expected to orbit in the same plane like those in our solar system do. This information, coupled with the wobbles Proxima b raises on its star, would tell us that world must be somewhere between 1.5 and 1.8 times the mass of Earth, which would let us refine theories about its characteristics. Such a mass would strongly point to the fact [that Proxima b] is rocky, says Elizabeth Tasker, an exoplanet scientist at the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, who was not involved in the study. In addition to our knowledge that Proxima b orbits in its stars habitable zone, where liquid water and thus life as we know it can exist, proof that the world is rocky would catapult it to the top of any astrobiologists list of promising exoplanets.

Such spectacular possibilities, however, call for steely-eyed skepticism. Indeed, the new papers authors acknowledge there is a decent chance their image is not actually a planet at all but rather just random noise in the data. They also note that the apparent motion of their putative planet conflicts with earlier estimates of Proxima cs position, based on observations of its star made by the European Space Agencys Gaia spacecraft. Thus, other astronomers are treating the potential finding with a considerable amount of caution. Its tough for me to conclude that [this] is a decisive detection, says Thayne Currie, an exoplanet scientist at NASAs Ames Research Center, who was also not part of the work.

Unfortunately, the ongoing global shutdown in response to the COVID-19 pandemic means that the result cannot be checked for the time being, because most of the worlds observatoriesincluding the VLTare not operational. It could be [confirmed or refuted] tomorrow, but the observatories are closed, says astronomer Guillem Anglada-Escud, who led the discovery of Proxima b in 2016 and was not involved in the new study. Time is running out for an immediate follow-up: in July Proxima Centauri will pass out of view behind our sun until February 2021.

So for now, the prospect of Proxima c having been seen for the first time remains an enticing but elusive possibility. Even if it proves to be a miragean astronomical false alarmthis potential detection is unlikely to dampen enthusiasm for further studies. Other teams will try again with upcoming instruments, more advanced than SPHERE, operating on supersized telescopes such as the E-ELT. But if the detection is real, which Gratton says he is two thirds confident about, it would be a historic initial glimpse of a planet orbiting the closest start to our own. If this is true, its very exciting, says Anglada-Escud.

Read more here:

Astronomers May Have Captured the First Ever Image of Nearby Exoplanet Proxima C - Scientific American

Travis Scott is about to get cosmic with Fortnite.

The Grammy-nominated rapper has teamed up with the online video game phenomenon to launch his new (and apparently space-themed) track "Astronomical" on Thursday (April 23).

"From April 23-25, blast off into a one of a kind musical journey featuring Travis Scott and the world premiere of a brand new track," Epic Games, the makers of Fortnite, wrote in an announcement. "Astronomical is an other-worldly experience inspired by Cactus Jack's creations, built from the ground up in Fortnite." (Cactus Jack is Scott's record label.)

Fans of Fortnite and Scott can jump into the game about 30 minutes before each scheduled "Astronomical" event (there are five of them) and will receive a free Astroworld Cyclone Glider and two space art loading screens just for tuning in. Fornite also launched a Travis Scott outfit for players that includes three variant skins (including one with a spacesuit helmet).

Here's when the events will occur:

"Astroworld" is the name of Scott's celebrated album and his space-themed festival that took place last November in Houston, Texas, according to our friends at Games Radar. It bears a striking similarity to Astroland, a theme park at New York City's Coney Island, which was also home to a Cyclone roller coaster at its Luna Park. (Yes, I rode it. Yes, it was awesome.)

Today (April 21) Fortnite launched a series of Astronomical Challenges for players, that will unlock a free spacesuit helmet spray, banner and a Travis Scott emote.

Scott's "Astronomical" debut isn't the first cosmic tie-in to land in the Fortnite game.

In December, the game featured a sneak peek at the "Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker" movie, complete with a message from the Emperor, the Millennium Falcon and "Star Wars"-themed gear for players.

Last October, Epic Games ended Fortnite's first chapter with a massive black hole, which destroyed the game's island battleground for days until Chapter 2 launched. The game has also featured rocket launches, comets, meteors and other sci-fi themes in past seasons.

Email Tariq Malik attmalik@space.comor follow him@tariqjmalik. Follow us@Spacedotcom, Facebook and Instagram.

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Travis Scott will launch 'Astronomical' into the Fortnite frontier this week - Space.com

When life events knock you down, looking to the stars may give you a new perspective. It reminds you how small we are and how easy it is to find a diversion with your old friend, the camera.

It doesnt take a lot of expensive equipment to take good photos of the heavens. Astrophotography can involve equipment as simple as a DSLR (digital single-lens reflex) camera with an ISO (International Organization for Standardization) rating of at least 1600 (the higher the number, the more sensitive to light it is).

Besides the camera, your equipment should include a sturdy tripod and a lens with an aperture (f-stop) opening of f/2.8 or higher.. The lower the f-stop the more light flows into the camera.

The size of the lens is also important. If you want a wide view with lots of foreground and more sky you should choose a 14 mm, 16 mm, 20 mm or 35 mm lens. If you want to take pictures of the moon, you will need a lens in the range of 200 mm to 600 mm.

Now find your location and attach your camera to the tripod. Switch off your automatic settings and find either the bulb or manual setting, which allows you to leave open the shutter for long exposures. The manual setting on most cameras will allow exposures of up to 30 seconds. Adjust your aperture to the maximum opening (the smaller numbers). Also, turn off the autofocus feature.

This 20-second exposure at iso-800 shows the difficulty with residential light pollution.

(Mark Boster/Los Angeles Times)

Your training wheels are gone now that youve turned off the automatic settings, and you can begin to experiment with your cameras manual adjustments. Start by manually focusing your lens to infinity and setting the ISO to 1600.

If your camera allows, adjust your shutter speed for an exposure of 15 to 30 seconds. Remember that Earth is rotating, so stars can appear to be streaking with exposures of 30 seconds.

Adjust your cameras image quality setting to RAW mode, which enables the highest-quality picture. Processing the pictures in RAW mode using Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Lightroom or other post-production tools provides better color and contrast control.

There are apps for everything, including astrophotography. Raul Roa, an avid astrophotographer, suggests the Planets app, which gives precise locations and times for viewing Polaris, the Milky Way and other celestial objects. Roa also uses the Sun Surveyor app, which shows where and when the Milky Way will rise, which is useful in planning your trips or locations.

Stan Honda, another former news photographer-turned-astrophotographer, offers his favorite apps: SkySafari, PhotoPills and Stellarium, all of which give you an idea of what you can see right now.

Before heading out to photograph the night sky, check the Weather page in the Times or online for the phases of the moon. Look for when the moon will be full, when it rises and when it sets.

Roa likes chasing the moon, he said, because it is something primordial. I look up and just think of what or who might be out there. Most of us will never get a chance to step off the Earth, so looking up and dreaming is the next best thing for me.

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Astronomy tips: How to photograph the moon, stars, and sky - Los Angeles Times

There's an asteroid closing in on a safe Earth flyby. That's nothing unusual - near-Earth space has a lot of rocks in it. But 1998 OR2 is distinguishing itself in a series of happy snaps as it draws closer to periapsis.

Both the Virtual Telescope Project in Rome and the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico have managed to catch glimpses of the asteroid as it grows brighter in our skies, travelling through space at around 31,320 kilometres per hour (19,461 miles per hour).

We have nothing to fear from 1998 OR2. It's relatively large, but it's not going to come close enough to threaten Earth. The asteroid was discovered in 1998, and astronomers have been watching it carefully to calculate its orbital path, which is projected all the way until the year 2197.

This year, 2020, will mark the asteroid's closest flyby in at least a century, and it's going to sail harmlessly past at a distance of 6.3 million kilometres (around 4 million miles). That's over 16 times the average distance between Earth and the Moon.

But because it's so large - estimates put it at around 4.1 kilometres long and 1.8 kilometres wide (2.5 by 1.1 miles) - it's unusually bright. It's therefore one of the largest and brightest near-Earth asteroids, and when it flies by on April 29 - periapsis, or its closest orbit, will be around 09:56 GMT - amateur astronomers may even be able to see it with smaller telescopes.

It is classed as a 'potentially hazardous' asteroid, because all asteroids above a certain size (140 metres) and within a certain distance of Earth (7,480,000 kilometres or 4,650,000 miles) are automatically classified as such.

But projections for 1998 OR2 don't indicate any kind of collision in our future. The next time it will come close to Earth will be in 2079, when it will swing by at a distance of 1.8 million kilometres (1.1 million miles). That's around 4.6 times the lunar distance.

In fact, this flyby is really cool. It will allow astronomers to take measurements of the asteroid so we can refine our size estimation techniques. We can also study the asteroid itself, to learn more about the composition of these space rocks. And tracking these objects also helps us develop measures for defending Earth against asteroids that could be genuinely hazardous.

If you want to try to catch a glimpse of this awesome chunk of rock, EarthSky has detailed instructions on the equipment you will need, and where in the sky to look.

If you are in the wrong place, or don't have a telescope, though, never fear - the Virtual Telescope Project will be livestreaming the event on its website.

See more here:

Astronomers Took New Pics of 1998 OR2, The Asteroid About to Whoosh Past Earth - ScienceAlert

In another first, scientists at the LIGO and Virgo gravitational wave detectors announced a signal unlike anything theyve ever seen before. While many black hole mergers have been detected thanks to LIGO and Virgos international network for detectors, this particular signal (GW190412) was the first where the two black holes had distinctly different masses.

The event was observed by both LIGO and Virgo on April 12th, 2019, early in the detectors third observation run (O3). According to the study that describes the find, which recently appeared online and the LIGO website, GW190412 took place about 1.9 to 2.9 billion light-years from Earth. It involved the merger of two black holes weighting approximately 8 and 30 Solar masses, respectively.

The event is unique in the history of gravitational wave astronomy since all binaries observed previously by the LIGO and Virgo detectors consisted of two roughly similar masses. Analyses revealthat the merger happened at a distance of 1.9 to 2.9 billion light-years from Earth. The new unequal mass system is a unique discovery since all binaries observed previously by the LIGO and Virgo detectors consisted of two roughly similar masses.

This sharp difference in mass allowed the LIGO/Virgo scientists to verify something predicted by Einsteins General Theory of Relativity, which has so far remained untested. Frank Ohme is the leader of the Independent Max Planck Research Group aka. the Binary Merger Observations and Numerical Relativity at the Albert Einstein Institute (AEI). As he stated in a recent AEI press release:

For the very first time we have heard in GW190412 the unmistakable gravitational-wave hum of a higher harmonic, similar to overtones of musical instruments. In systems with unequal masses like GW190412 our first observation of this type these overtones in the gravitational-wave signal are much louder than in our usual observations. This is why we couldnt hear them before, but in GW190412, we finally can.

These observations once again confirms the theory of General Relativity (GR), which states that massive objects alter the curvature of space time and cause ripples aka. gravitational waves when they merge. The theory also predicts that binary systems where two objects are vastly different in terms of mass will introduce higher harmonics into the waveform.

When the LIGO and Virgo collaborations examined the signal produced by GW190412, they observed this very phenomenon at work for the first time in history. In short, the fundamental frequency of the GWs were two or three times higher than what has been observed with all other events that have been detected so far.

Says Roberto Cotesta, a PhD student in the Astrophysical and Cosmological Relativity division at the AEI in Potsdam:

The black holes at the heart of GW190412 have 8 and 30 times the mass of our Sun, respectively. This is the first binary black-hole system we have observed for which the difference between the masses of the two black holes is so large! This big mass difference means that we can more precisely measure several properties of the system: its distance to us, the angle we look at it, and how fast the heavy black hole spins around its axis.

Another benefit of this latest detection is that it allowed the team to measure the systems astrophysical properties with greater precision. In short, unequal masses imprint themselves on a GW signal, which in turn allows scientists to more precisely measure properties like the mass and spin of the merging objects, as well as the distance to the source and angle of observation.

Essential to this was the accurate models of GWs produced from coalescing black holes, which were provided by researchers from the Albert Einstein Institute. For the first time, these models included both the precession of the black-holes spins and multipole moments beyond the dominant quadrupole which were crucial to measuring their properties and carrying out tests of GR.

The Institutes high-performance Minerva and Hypatia computer clusters at AEI Potsdam and Holodeck at AEI Hannover also played a significant role in the analysis of the signal. According to Alessandra Buonanno, the director of the Astrophysical and Cosmological Relativity division at the AEI, this type of unique signal is something that the two previous observations runs failed to detect. As she said:

During O1 and O2, we have observed the tip of the iceberg of the binary population composed of stellar-mass black holes. Thanks to the improved sensitivity, GW190412 has begun to reveal us a more diverse, submerged population, characterized by mass asymmetry as large as 4 and black holes spinning at about 40% the possible maximum value allowed by general relativity.

Another reason why this kind of observation was not possible before has to do with the recent upgrades made at all the detectors in the LIGO/Virgo international network. This includes a new technique where the quantum-mechanical properties of the lasers used by LIGO and Vigro are squeezed to enhance the sensitivity of the detectors.

This technique was pioneered by researchers at the German-British GEO600 detector in South Hanover, Germany designed and operated by scientists from the Max Planck Institute and multiple European universities. The technique has improved the sensitivity of the GEO600 detector by a factor of two and the AEI is leading the global effort to maximize the effectiveness of the light squeezing technique further.

When the first GW event was detected by scientists at LIGO in February of 2016, it signaled a new age in astronomy. In just over four years, improvements made to individual detectors and international collaborations have ushered in an era where events are being detected every week.

With every new detection, we are learning more about the exotic physics that power our Universe. Be sure to check out this simulation of what the GW190412 merger looked like, courtesy of the Albert Einstein Institute:

Further Reading: Albert Einstein Institute, LSC

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Astronomers Detected a Black Hole Merger With Very Different Mass Objects - Universe Today

This is a piece of the puzzle that gets stacked on top of other points below. Do you need a telescope to start stargazing? Not necessarily. Though you can't see everything with the naked eye. So, it depends on what you're looking for. If you want to view deep-space objects, youre going to need a telescope. If youre looking at planets, youll be able to see a lot of them with the naked eye. Venus, Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter are all easily visible. However, even a pair of binoculars will give you a more impressive view.

However, there are tools available beyond telescopes and binoculars. "The first thing I did when I started is to subscribe to the national magazines," Sreenivasan said. "The two largest ones are Sky and Telescopeand Astronomy." Though, he notes you can read them online as well. They have details about what you can see in the night sky over the coming weeks. (Of course, Thrillist also has details on many space events throughout the year.)

Additionally, there are apps that use augmented reality to show you what's in the sky and help you track down objects you want to see. Some of the most popular apps include Sky View, Sky Safari, Star Walk, and Night Sky. "Also, invest in a star atlas," Sreenivasan said. "There are several out there like Sky & Telescopes Pocket Sky Atlas.Thats one a lot of beginners use, and I still use it myself when I travel. Its just a set of star maps. Its a pretty small book, but its a pretty good book."

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Everything You Need to Know to Take up Stargazing - Thrillist

Thursday, 23 April 2020, 2:44 pmPress Release: University of Canterbury

University of Canterbury (UC) astronomers arepart of an international team that has revealed howexplosions on the surface of a white dwarf star can increaseits brightness by thousands or millions of times making itlook like a new star.

For many yearsastronomers have thought that nuclear fusion of material onthe surface of a white dwarf directly powers all the lightfrom a nova explosion, which happen about 10 times a year inour galaxy.

A nova, or stella nova Latin fornew star is a sudden explosion on the surface of awhite dwarf, which is the hot, burnt-out core of a star. Itproduces an incredible amount of energy and light,increasing the stars brightness by thousands or evenmillions of times. If a nova occurs relatively close toearth it can appear as a new star to the naked eye.

Innew research, a team of international astronomers has shownthat shock waves from the nova explosion, rather thannuclear fusion, cause most of the brightness.

The teamused NASAs space-based telescopes and ground-basedtelescopes, including some at the UCMt John Observatory in Tekapo, to observe a recentnearby nova in the constellation of Carina and proved thatit is indeed shock waves that cause most of the novasbrightness.

Their results are documented in a newpaper called Direct evidence for shock-powered opticalemission in a nova published this month in theinternational journal NatureAstronomy.

UC Associate Professor in Astronomyand Director of the University of Canterbury Mt JohnObservatory KarenPollard, who co-authored the paper, was observing atUCs Mt John Observatory using the McLellan telescope andHERCULES spectrograph a few days after the bright nova inCarina was reported.

I was excited to observe it a new bright novae in the galaxy is an importantopportunity to make a detailed study of the novasproperties and how these change with time. Usingspectroscopy we were able to examine shock-produced emissionand calculate how energetic the shock waves were and howfast the shocked material was moving, shesays.

Elias Aydi, a research associate in MichiganState Universitys (MSU) Department of Physics andAstronomy and lead author of the paper, says the discoveryleads to a new way of understanding the origin of thebrightness of novae and other stellar explosions. Ourfindings present the first direct observational evidence,from unprecedented space observations, that shocks play amajor role in powering these events.

When materialblasts out from the white dwarf, he says it is ejected inmultiple phases and at different speeds. These ejectionscollide with one another and create shocks, which heat theejected material producing much of the light.

Anotherside effect of astronomical shocks are gamma-rays, thehighest-energy kind of electromagnetic radiation. Theastronomers detected bright gamma-rays from the star, knownas nova V906 Carinae (ASASSN-18fv), whose explosion in theconstellation Carina was first detected in March2018.

An optical satellite happened to be looking atthe part of the sky where the nova occurred. Comparing thegamma-ray and optical data, the astronomers noted that everytime there was a fluctuation in gamma-rays, the light fromthe nova fluctuated as well.

The simultaneousfluctuations in both the visual and gamma-ray brightnessconfirmed that both were originating from shocks.

Theresearch team estimates that V906 Car is about 13,000 lightyears from Earth. This means that when the nova was firstdetected in 2018, it had actually happened 13,000 years ago.The new information may also help explain how large amountsof light are generated in other stellar events, includingsupernovae and stellar mergers, when two stars collide withone another. Each nova explosion releases about 10,000 to100,000 times the annual energy output of theSun.

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Astronomers Discover The Science Behind Star Bursts That Light Up The Sky - Scoop.co.nz