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Crown of Immortality – Wikipedia

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The Crown of Immortality is a literary and religious metaphor traditionally represented in art first as a laurel wreath and later as a symbolic circle of stars (often a crown, tiara, halo or aureola). The Crown appears in a number of Baroque iconographic and allegoric works of art to indicate the wearer's immortality.

In ancient Egypt, the crown of justification was a wreath placed on the deceased to represent victory over death in the afterlife, in emulation of the resurrecting god Osiris. It was made of various materials including laurel, palm, feathers, papyrus, roses, or precious metals, with numerous examples represented on the Fayum mummy portraits of the Roman Imperial period.[1]

In ancient Greece, a wreath of laurel or olive was awarded to victorious athletes and later poets. Among the Romans, generals celebrating a formal triumph wore a laurel wreath, an honor that during the Empire was restricted to the Imperial family. The placing of the wreath was often called a "crowning", and its relation to immortality was problematic; it was supposed to secure the wearer immortality in the form of enduring fame, but the triumphator was also reminded of his place within the mortal world: in the traditional tableaux, an accompanying slave whispered continually in the general's ear Memento mori, "Remember you are mortal".[2] Funerary wreaths of gold leaf were associated particularly with initiates into the mystery religions.[3]

From the Early Christian era the phrase "crown of immortality" was widely used by the Church Fathers in writing about martyrs; the immortality was now both of reputation on earth, and of eternal life in heaven. The usual visual attribute of a martyr in art, was a palm frond, not a wreath.[citation needed] The phrase may have originated in scriptural references, or from incidents such as this reported by Eusebius (Bk V of History) describing the persecution in Lyon in 177, in which he refers to literal crowns, and also brings in an athletic metaphor of the "victor's crown" at the end:

"From that time on, their martyrdoms embraced death in all its forms. From flowers of every shape and color they wove a crown to offer to the Father; and so it was fitting that the valiant champions should endure an ever-changing conflict, and having triumphed gloriously should win the mighty crown of immortality. Maturus, Sanctus, Blandina, and Attalus were taken into the amphitheater to face the wild beasts, and to furnish open proof of the inhumanity of the heathen, the day of fighting wild beasts being purposely arranged for our people. There, before the eyes of all, Maturus and Sanctus were again taken through the whole series of punishments, as if they had suffered nothing at all before, or rather as if they had already defeated their opponent in bout after bout and were now battling for the victor's crown."[4]

The first use seems to be that attributed to the martyr Ignatius of Antioch in 107.[citation needed]

An Advent wreath is a ring of candles, usually made with evergreen cuttings and used for household devotion by some Christians during the season of Advent. The wreath is meant to represent God's eternity. On Saint Lucy's Day, December 13, it is common to wear crowns of candles in Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Italy, Bosnia, Iceland, and Croatia.

Before the reform of the Gregorian calendar in the 16th century, St. Lucy's Day fell on the winter solstice. The representation of Saint Lucy seems to derive from the Roman goddess Lucina, who is connected to the solstice.[5][6]

Martyrs often are idealized as combatants, with the spectacle of the arena transposed to the martyr's struggle with Satan. Ignatius of Antioch, condemned to fight beasts in the year 107, "asked his friends not to try to save him and so rob him of the crown of immortality."[7] In 155, Polycarp, Christian bishop of Smyrna, was stabbed after a failed attempt to burn him at the stake. He is said to have been " crowned with the wreath of immortality ... having through patience overcome the unjust governor, and thus acquired the crown of immortality."[8]Eusebius uses similar imagery to speak of Blandina, martyred in the arena at Lyon in 177:

The crown of stars, representing immortality, may derive from the story of Ariadne, especially as told by Ovid, in which the unhappy Ariadne is turned into a constellation of stars, the Corona Borealis (Crown of the North), modelled on a jewelled crown she wore, and thus becoming immortal. In Titian's Bacchus and Ariadne (152023, National Gallery, London), the constellation is shown above Ariadne's head as a circle of eight stars (though Ovid specifies nine), very similar to what would become the standard depiction of the motif. Although the crown was probably depicted in classical art, and is described in several literary sources, no classical visual depictions have survived.[11] The Titian therefore appears to be the earliest such representation to survive, and it was also at this period that illustrations in prints of the Apocalypse by artists such as Drer[12][13] and Jean Duvet were receiving very wide circulation.

In Ariadne, Venus and Bacchus, by Tintoretto (1576, Doge's Palace, Venice), a flying Venus crowns Ariadne with a circle of stars, and many similar compositions exist, such as the ceiling of the Egyptian Hall at Boughton House of 1695.

The first use of the crown of stars as an allegorical Crown of Immortality may be the ceiling fresco, Allegory of Divine Providence and Barberini Power (163339), in the Palazzo Barberini in Rome by Pietro da Cortona. Here a figure identified as Immortality is flying, with her crown of stars held out in front of her, near the centre of the large ceiling. According to the earliest descriptions she is about to crown the Barberini emblems, representing Pope Urban VIII, who was also a poet.[14][15][16] Immortality seems to have been a preoccupation of Urban; his funeral monument by Bernini in St Peter's Basilica in Rome has Death as a life-size skeleton writing his name on a scroll.

Two further examples of the Crown of Immortality can be found in Sweden, firstly in the great hall ceiling fresco of the Swedish House of Knights by David Klcker Ehrenstrahl (between 16701675) which pictures among many allegoric figures Eterna (eternity) who holds in her hands the Crown of Immortality.[17] The second is in Drottningholm Palace, the home of the Swedish Royal Family, in a ceiling fresco named The Great Deeds of The Swedish Kings, painted in 1695 by David Klcker Ehrenstrahl.[18] This has the same motif as the fresco in the House of Knights mentioned above. The Drottningholm fresco, was shown in the 1000th stamp[19] by Czesaw Sania, the Polish postage stamp and banknote engraver.

The crown was also painted by the French Neoclassical painter Louis-Jean-Franois Lagrene, 17251805, in his Allegory on the Death of the Dauphin, where the crown was held by a young son who had pre-deceased the father (alternative titles specifically mention the crown of Immortality).[20]

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Crown of Immortality - Wikipedia

Association for Integrative Medicine

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Dear Holistic, Alternative and Integrated Health Practitioners,

Peter Redmond D.C.

and all persons interested in Integrative Medicine, We cordially invite you to join our Association for Integrative Medicine.

We believe that the combined knowledge of old and new healing modalities is ultimately superior to a single-model approach to health and wellness.

It is our philosophy that diverse modalities such as Massage, Counseling, Reiki, Yoga, Shiatsu, Biofeedback, Chiropractic, Hypnosis, Homeopathy, Naturopathy, Cranio-Sacral Therapy, the Arts Therapies, Western Medicine and many others can work in conjunction with each other as part of a unified team rather than in competition. This integrated approach ultimately will lead to safer, faster and more effective healthcare.

If you would like to be considered for a position on our Board of directors or advisory Board, please send a written statement as to how you are qualified for the position, why you would make an effective Board member, how you bring diversity or representation of the general public to the Board, and why you are interested in the post, your vision for AIM and how you would be able to assist in achieving it.

For any additional information, questions or comments, please dont hesitate to write or call us.

Sincerely Yours,

Peter Redmond, D.C. and Eric Miller, Ph.D.

Executive Director Eric Miller

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Association for Integrative Medicine

Reproduction (album) – Wikipedia

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Reproduction is the first album released by the British synthpop group The Human League. The album was released in October 1979 through Virgin Records.

Reproduction contains nine tracks of electronic/synthpop with some elements of industrial music, and was recorded during six weeks at The Human League's studio in Sheffield. The recordings were co-produced by Colin Thurston, who had previously worked on some key new wave recordings such as Iggy Pop's Lust for Life and Magazine's Secondhand Daylight, and who went on to produce numerous hit albums of the 1980s, most notably for Duran Duran. The album was composed and engineered by The Human League (Oakey/Ware/Marsh) and Bob Last for Virgin Records. The album includes The Human League's cover version of "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin'", a hit single in 1965 for The Righteous Brothers.

The cover shows the feet of a man and two women seemingly standing on a number of naked babies. This was at the instruction of the band, but band member Martyn Ware described how the band's brief was misinterpreted by the record company's art department:

"We said we wanted an image of a glass dance floor in a discotheque which people were dancing on and beneath this, a lit room full of babies. It was meant to look like a still from a film like some kind of dystopian vision of the future but it just looks like they're treading on babies. We were quite upset but at that time, it was too late to change it."[3]

The album's initial release in October 1979 was a commercial failure, but it was re-issued and entered the charts almost two years later in August 1981, earning a Silver disc by the end of the year and peaking at #34 in early 1982. The album spent a total of 23 weeks in the album chart and was certified Gold by the BPI in 1988.

The only single released from the album was "Empire State Human" which initially failed to chart. It was re-released in June 1980 (with a free single taken from the band's second album, Travelogue) and reached #62. The band's first single from 1978, "Being Boiled", was not included on the original release of Reproduction, but was added as an extra track on all CD issues from the late 1980s onwards. However, re-recorded version of that single's B-side, "Circus of Death", was included on the album.

The following tracks were first added when the album was released on CD in 1987:

"Introducing" was originally the B-side of the "Empire State Human" single. The master tape of this recording probably got lost since a digitized vinyl recording was used for the CD. The instrumental "The Dignity of Labour" tracks had been released as an EP in 1979 with "Flexi Disc" (a tongue-in-cheek in-studio meta-conversation between the members of the band and their manager, Bob Last, about their plans to include a flexidisc with their EP and what to put on it). The last two tracks were the A- and B-sides of the band's first single, "Being Boiled", released before they signed to Virgin. The 'Fast Version' (so-called because of the label the single was released on Fast Product) of "Circus of Death" is shorter than the original single version as it does not have the spoken end of the song.

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Reproduction (album) - Wikipedia

Portal:Biotechnology – Wikipedia

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Biotechnology Portal

Welcome to the Biotechnology portal. Biotechnology is a technology based on biology, especially when used in agriculture, food science, and medicine.

Of the many different definitions available, the one declared by the UN Convention on Biological Diversity is one of the broadest:

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Portal:Biotechnology/Selected questions/November

Biotechnology subcategories:

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Cloning is the process of creating an identical copy of an original. A clone in the biological sense, therefore, is a single cell (like bacteria, lymphocytes etc.) or multi-cellular organism that is genetically identical to another living organism. Sometimes this can refer to "natural" clones made either when an organism reproduces asexually or when two genetically identical individuals are produced by accident (as with identical twins), but in common parlance the clone is an identical copy by some conscious design. Also see clone (genetics). The term clone is derived from , the Greek word for "twig". In horticulture, the spelling clon was used until the twentieth century; the final e came into use to indicate the vowel is a "long o" instead of a "short o". Since the term entered the popular lexicon in a more general context, the spelling clone has been used exclusively.

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Portal:Biotechnology - Wikipedia

Biology – Biochemistry

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Photosynthesis - an important biochemical reaction

Photosynthesis and the Web: 2008 - photosynthesis-related web sites grouped into several categories, e.g Subject Sites, Educational etc.- from Arizona State University

Milestones in Photosynthesis Research - Govindjee - a 32 page .pdf document (611 KB)

The Photosynthetic Process - from the Photosynthesis Research Unit, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, includes history of photosynthesis

A Primer on Photosynthesis and the Functioning of Cells - from the University of Michigan, Global Change I

The Nutrient requirements of Cells - from Kimball's Biology Pages

Photosynthesis- from the On-line Biology Book, Estrella Mountain Community College

Photosynthesis Study Guide - from Modern Biology textbook site

Photosynthesis in providing a source of energy

Vehicle Technologies Program from Office of Fuels Development US Dept of Energy -

Biodiesel, from US Dept of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Just the basics: Biodiesel -.pdf (283 KB), U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Carbon currency the credits and debits of carbon emissions trading - from Australian Academy of Sciences

Solar to Fuel: Catalyzing the Science - a paper from the Berkeley National Laboratory

Making Packaging Greener - Biodegradable Plastics, Reading list - from Australian Academy of Sciences

ABCs of Biopower - from the US Dept of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

The development of the theory of photosynthesis

Photosynthesis - including the contributions of key botanists, from Botany Online (The Internet Hypertextbook), University of Hamburg

Highlights in photosynthesis research - from the Nobel e-Museum

Research into Photosynthesis - from University of California, Berkeley

Chlorophyll - from Bristol University, UK

The people who contributed to the theory of photosynthesis

Analyzing van Helmont's Experiment - a student exercise

Hales, Stephen 1671-1761 - from History of Horticulture, the Ohio-State University

Nicolas-Theodore de SAUSSURE - from CYBERLIPID CENTER

Photosynthesis - from Botany Online, Hamburg University, details Blackman and Mathei's findings

Sachs, Julius Von 1832-1897 - from History pf Horticulture, the Ohio-State University

Julius v. SACHS (1832-1897) - from Botany Online, University of Hamburg

Mikhail Tswett (1872-1919) - from Le Moyne College

History of Development of Chromatography - from Wiley Publishing (pdf 1.28 MB)

Mikhail Tsvet - from Chemistry Daily

The Light Reactions of Photosynthesis - from Botany On-line, University of Hamburg

Robert HILL FRS (1899-1991) - brief memoir by a student (pdf, 550 KB)

Martin Kamen, Who Discovered Carbon-14 Here, Wins Fermi Award

Nobel Prize Awarded to Nine Berkeley Lab Scientists - from Science Beat at The Berkeley Labs

MELVIN CALVIN - from Nobel e-Museum

Melvin Calvin, 1961 Nobelist and UC Berkeley professor, dies at age 85 - from University of California, Berkeley

Photosynthesis - a light dependent reaction

Why study photosynthesis? - from Arizona State University

An Introduction to Photosynthesis and Its Applications - from Arizona State University

Johnsons's Photosynthesis Simulation - requires Shockwave - investigate the effects of light intensity and wavelength on Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis Simulation - laboratory activity based on the above simulation

Photosynthetic Pictures Are Worth More Than a Thousand Words - from Access Excellence

Photosynthesis: The Role of Light - Biology Pages are produced by John Kimball formerly a professor at Harvard University

Photosynthesis - Light Reactions. from Old Dominion University

Photosynthesis Problem Set 1 - from The Biology Project, University of Arizona, set of multiple choice questions with detailed feedback

Photosynthesis Problem Set 2 - from The Biology Project, University of Arizona, set of multiple choice questions with detailed feedback

Without pigments we're nothing - from University of Arizona

Chloroplasts and chlorophyll

Chloroplasts - from Kimball's Biology Pages

What the Heck is a Chloroplast? from Bugs in the News, Kansas University

Photosynthesis and Chromatography of its Pigments - from Science Projects

An Introduction to Chromatography - from Access Excellence

Chromatography - from Rensselaer Polytchnic Institute

Paper Chromatography - from Kimball's Biology pages

Chromatography - from Chemistry Daily

Lab 5 Green Plant I - Kean University, scroll down to SEPARATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF LEAF PIGMENTS

Use of radioisotopes in tracing biochemical reactions

Photosynthesis: Pathway of Carbon Fixation - Biology Pages are produced by John Kimball formerly a professor at Harvard University

Biosynthesis of Carbohydrates - from The Biology Project, The University of Arizona

The Dark Reactions of Photosynthesis, Assimilation of Carbon Dioxide and The CALVIN Cycle - from Botany Online, University of Hamburg

Photosynthesis Study Guide - for Modern Biology, Holt, Reinhart and Winston

ATP - energy currency

The Energy Relationships in Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis: the Balance Sheet - Biology Pages are produced by John Kimball formerly a professor at Harvard University

Energy: Making ATP - a detailed overview from University of Connecticut

Adenosine Triphosphate - ATP - from Molecule of the Month, Bristol University

Peter Mitchell (1920 - 1992) - and the chemiosmotic hypothesis from University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1997 - Walker, Boyer and Skou, from the Nobel e-Museum

Electron microscope and visualising plant organelles

Chloroplast - from Cells Alive

Chloroplasts - from Kimball's Biology Pages

Cell Structure and Function - Studyguide -see Question 27 (pdf, 300 KB)

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) - from The University of Nebraska

An Introduction to Microscopy - including The History of the Microscope

Virtual Microscopy - Interactive Java Tutorials, from Molecular Expressions

Page Maintained By: uniserve@usyd.edu.au Last Update: Monday, 30-Apr-2012 14:29:02 AEST URL: http://science.uniserve.edu.au/school/curric/stage6/biol/biolchem.html

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Biology - Biochemistry

Biochemistry and molecular biology – La Trobe University

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There's a lot to consider when choosing your course.

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Biochemistry and molecular biology are where biology and chemistry meet.

Study cell and molecular biology, disease, cell death and ageing, immunology, biotechnology, DNA and protein chemistry, metabolism and drug and vaccine development. Our courses have lots of practical training and field trips.

Biochemistry and molecular biology can be taken as a major in the Bachelor of Bioscience or studied as part of manyother science degrees.

Students have access to some of the best teaching and research facilities in the world with the completion of the new $100 million LaTrobe Institute for Molecular Science (LIMS) building.

You will be prepared for a career in many areas related to biomedical research, molecular cell biology and biotechnology.

Our students find work in government organisations, research institutes and private industry.

NB: The ATARs published here are a guide, based on the most recent intake, and can change from year to year. These are Clearly-in ATARs, meaning applicants with scores equivalent to, or higher than the quoted ATAR, were made an offer.

In the first year of this degree, you'll explore the basics of animal, plant and microbial biology through the lenses of cell biology, genetics, evolution, biodiversity and ecology. In second and third year, you can specialise through a choice of majors including botany, microbiology, zoology, biochemistry or genetics.

You'll get plenty of hands-on experience in our labs or on field trips to diverse habitats across Victoria. You'll be exposed to cutting edge biological research via world-class research institutes (the La Trobe Institute of Molecular Science and Centre for AgriBiosciences) and you'll have access to the La Trobe Wildlife Sanctuary on our Melbourne Campus.

During your field excursions you'll learn techniques to survey animal and plant biodiversity. During lab classes you'll gain the skills to conduct scientific experiments and develop and present your own work.

Along with practical and theoretical classes, we'll help you prepare for the workplace through opportunities for paid work experience.

If you intend to apply only to La Trobe you can apply direct to the University until applications close in December. Late direct applications may be accepted.

Please note: VTAC applications cannot be withdrawn in order to submit a direct application. The same selection criteria and entry standards are applied to VTAC and direct applications.

To find out more about this course and studying at La Trobe: - ask us a question - chat online - visit our FAQ page - connect with us on Facebook, Twitter or Instagram - call us on 1300 135 045.

The delivery of this course can vary between campuses. For detailed information please select the relevant campus:

First year foundational science subjects focus on biology and chemistry. Second year subjects - biosciences, medical science, biochemistry, genetics, anatomy, physiology and microbiology - will lead you towards your third year specialisation and postgraduate studies.

You'll learn about the human body in health and sickness, and gain knowledge of medical biochemistry, microbiology, pharmacology, cell and molecular biology, anatomy, physiology, infectious diseases and neuroscience.

You'll discover the symptoms of disease, learn how to analyse scientific and medical data, and do practical lab work. Third year advanced biochemistry and medical sciences internships and lab courses give you more hands-on experience. We'll also show you how to read, research and interpret scientific publications and teach you to meaningfully convey scientific and biomedical science information in writing.

Through this degree, you'll have access to the La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science - our $100 million teaching and research facility. With our industry cadetship program, you can also gain workplace experience, building on your skills and industry connections.

First year students may be eligible for the Dean's Scholarship for Academic Excellence or other undergraduate scholarships. We also offer overseas study opportunities, including clinical placements and volunteering.

You can apply to study this course through our Hallmark Scholars Program. See the listing for Hallmark Course Group C for more details.

NB: Meeting minimum prerequisites does not guarantee an offer of a place. Entry into all La Trobe courses is based on competitive selection and there may be limited places available.

Selection may also be based on GPA or STAT Multiple Choice.

If you intend to apply only to La Trobe you can apply direct to the University until applications close in December. Late direct applications may be accepted.

Please note: VTAC applications cannot be withdrawn in order to submit a direct application. The same selection criteria and entry standards are applied to VTAC and direct applications.

To find out more about this course and studying at La Trobe: - ask us a question - book a one-on-one consultation - chat online - visit our FAQ page - connect with us on Facebook, Twitter or Instagram - call us on 1300 135 045.

The delivery of this course can vary between campuses. For detailed information please select the relevant campus:

Our law degree has a strong focus on global and social justice. You'll study the essential legal areas like criminal law, constitutional law and legal ethics. You'll also cover science-related topics such as intellectual property and medicine and the law. Visiting lecturers from high profile law firms will help you develop an understanding of dispute resolution and recent legal developments.

You'll have the opportunity to participate in additional studies including Honours in Laws, subjects from our Global Business Law program at the Master's level, and clinical practice in a law firm.

The science component of this degree can be tailored to your interests. Choose from a range of specialisations including botany, computer science, psychology, chemistry and physics, and get hands-on experience through lab studies and field trips.

Only the first two years of this course are offered in Bendigo. While it is possible to arrange long-distance learning, we recommend transferring to the Melbourne Campus to complete your degree with a wider selection of subjects. Law electives are also available in intensive delivery at Melbourne in summer and winter schools.

If you intend to apply only to La Trobe you can apply direct to the University until applications close in December. Late direct applications may be accepted.

Please note: VTAC applications cannot be withdrawn in order to submit a direct application. The same selection criteria and entry standards are applied to VTAC and direct applications.

To find out more about this course and studying at La Trobe: - ask us a question - chat online - visit our FAQ page - connect with us on Facebook, Twitter or Instagram - call us on 1300 135 045.

The delivery of this course can vary between campuses. For detailed information please select the relevant campus:

This is one of our most flexible degrees with up to 18 specialist areas to choose from including agricultural science, biochemistry, biomedical science, botany, chemistry, computer science, electronics, environmental geoscience, genetics, information technology, mathematics, nanotechnology, statistics, microbiology, physics, psychology and zoology.

During your first two years, you'll study a range of introductory subjects to give you a solid foundation in science and related disciplines. Students enrolled at our Albury-Wodonga Campus will transfer to Melbourne or Bendigo after completing first year.

In third year, you'll either select two science specialties or combine your science major with studies from another discipline, like business or engineering.

Throughout your course, you'll have access to purpose-built facilities including the La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science. You'll also have opportunities for work placements with organisations like the Department of Environment and Primary Industries and other businesses conducting research in biochemistry, chemistry and genetics.

Through our partnerships with education providers all over the world, you'll also have the opportunity to study abroad and gain knowledge of alternative scientific processes and practices.

You can apply to study this course at Bendigo or Melbourne Campus through our Hallmark Scholars Program.

NB: Meeting minimum prerequisites does not guarantee an offer of a place. Entry into all La Trobe courses is based on competitive selection and there may be limited places available.

If you intend to apply only to La Trobe you can apply direct to the University until applications close in December. Late direct applications may be accepted.

Please note: VTAC applications cannot be withdrawn in order to submit a direct application. The same selection criteria and entry standards are applied to VTAC and direct applications.

To find out more about this course and studying at La Trobe: - ask us a question - chat online - visit our FAQ page - connect with us on Facebook, Twitter or Instagram - call us on 1300 135 045.

The delivery of this course can vary between campuses. For detailed information please select the relevant campus:

In the first year of this degree, you'll explore the basics of animal, plant and microbial biology through the lenses of cell biology, genetics, evolution, biodiversity and ecology. In second and third year, you can specialise through a choice of majors including botany, microbiology, zoology, biochemistry or genetics.

You'll get plenty of hands-on experience in our labs or on field trips to diverse habitats across Victoria. You'll be exposed to cutting edge biological research via world-class research institutes (the La Trobe Institute of Molecular Science and Centre for AgriBiosciences) and you'll have access to the La Trobe Wildlife Sanctuary on our Melbourne Campus.

During your field excursions you'll learn techniques to survey animal and plant biodiversity. During lab classes you'll gain the skills to conduct scientific experiments and develop and present your own work.

Along with practical and theoretical classes, we'll help you prepare for the workplace through opportunities for paid work experience.

TOEFL Paper-based Test - a minimum overall score of 550 with a score of 5 or more in the Test of Written English;

TOEFL Internet-based Test - a minimum overall score of 60 with a minimum for SLR 18; W 22;

Satisfactory completion of the English for Further Studies Advanced Stage 5B (EFS5 UG minimum 60 per cent) which is available from La Trobe Melbourne; for more information please visit the La Trobe Melbourne website.

La Trobe Melbourne Foundation Studies: 60 per cent final result in a course;

English as the language of instruction in tertiary studies may be accepted. Please note: English as the language of instruction in previous study will not be accepted as a basis of admission (English) for courses where the approved test score requirement is above an IELTS 6.5 with no band score lower than 6.0.

Pearson Test of English (Academic) (PTE): a minimum score of 57 with no communicative skill score less than 50.

Cambridge Certificate of Advanced English (CAE): a grade of B or higher.

Cambridge Certificate of Proficiency in English (CPE): a pass grade of C or higher;

or approved international equivalent.

If you do not meet these entry requirements you might be interested in La Trobe's Foundation Studies and Diploma Programs, which provide an alternative pathway to La Trobe's undergraduate program. For more information please visit the La Trobe Melbourne website.

NB: The scores above are indicative only and may change based on the number of applications received and places available. Achieving the above listed scores does not guarantee an offer of a place.

The delivery of this course can vary between campuses. For detailed information please select the relevant campus:

First year foundational science subjects focus on biology and chemistry. Second year subjects - biosciences, medical science, biochemistry, genetics, anatomy, physiology and microbiology - will lead you towards your third year specialisation and postgraduate studies.

You'll learn about the human body in health and sickness, and gain knowledge of medical biochemistry, microbiology, pharmacology, cell and molecular biology, anatomy, physiology, infectious diseases and neuroscience.

You'll discover the symptoms of disease, learn how to analyse scientific and medical data, and do practical lab work. Third year advanced biochemistry and medical sciences internships and lab courses give you more hands-on experience. We'll also show you how to read, research and interpret scientific publications and teach you to meaningfully convey scientific and biomedical science information in writing.

Through this degree, you'll have access to the La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science - our $100 million teaching and research facility. With our industry cadetship program, you can also gain workplace experience, building on your skills and industry connections.

First year students may be eligible for the Dean's Scholarship for Academic Excellence or other undergraduate scholarships. We also offer overseas study opportunities, including clinical placements and volunteering.

You can apply to study this course through our Hallmark Scholars Program. See the listing for Hallmark Course Group C for more details.

TOEFL Paper-based Test - a minimum overall score of 550 with a score of 5 or more in the Test of Written English;

TOEFL Internet-based Test - a minimum overall score of 60 with a minimum for SLR 18; W 22;

Satisfactory completion of the English for Further Studies Advanced Stage 5B (EFS5 UG minimum 60 per cent) which is available from La Trobe Melbourne; for more information please visit the La Trobe Melbourne website.

La Trobe Melbourne Foundation Studies: 60 per cent final result in a course;

English as the language of instruction in tertiary studies may be accepted. Please note: English as the language of instruction in previous study will not be accepted as a basis of admission (English) for courses where the approved test score requirement is above an IELTS 6.5 with no band score lower than 6.0.

Pearson Test of English (Academic) (PTE): a minimum score of 57 with no communicative skill score less than 50.

Cambridge Certificate of Advanced English (CAE): a grade of B or higher.

Cambridge Certificate of Proficiency in English (CPE): a pass grade of C or higher;

or approved international equivalent.

If you do not meet these entry requirements you might be interested in La Trobe's Foundation Studies and Diploma Programs, which provide an alternative pathway to La Trobe's undergraduate program. For more information please visit the La Trobe Melbourne website.

NB: The scores above are indicative only and may change based on the number of applications received and places available. Achieving the above listed scores does not guarantee an offer of a place.

Please apply through VTAC if youre completing your VCE or International Baccalaureate (IB) in Victoria, or apply through UAC if youre completing your HSC or IB in New South Wales.

A limited number of La Trobe College Excellence Scholarships are available, offering up to 25% reduction on your postgraduate course fees. Learn More

The delivery of this course can vary between campuses. For detailed information please select the relevant campus:

Our law degree has a strong focus on global and social justice. You'll study the essential legal areas like criminal law, constitutional law and legal ethics. You'll also cover science-related topics such as intellectual property and medicine and the law. Visiting lecturers from high profile law firms will help you develop an understanding of dispute resolution and recent legal developments.

You'll have the opportunity to participate in additional studies including Honours in Laws, subjects from our Global Business Law program at the Master's level, and clinical practice in a law firm.

The science component of this degree can be tailored to your interests. Choose from a range of specialisations including botany, computer science, psychology, chemistry and physics, and get hands-on experience through lab studies and field trips.

Only the first two years of this course are offered in Bendigo. While it is possible to arrange long-distance learning, we recommend transferring to the Melbourne Campus to complete your degree with a wider selection of subjects. Law electives are also available in intensive delivery at Melbourne in summer and winter schools.

TOEFL Paper-based Test: minimum score of 575 (minimum score of 5 in the Test of Written English).

TOEFL Internet-based Test: minimum score of 80 with minimum overall for SLR 18; W 22.

La Trobe Melbourne (ELICOS): completion of English for Further Studies Advanced Stage 5B Certificate at postgraduate (EFS5 (70 per cent) PG1) level. For more information please visit the La Trobe Melbourne website.

La Trobe Melbourne Foundation Studies: 70 per cent final result in a course.

English as the language of instruction in tertiary studies may be accepted. Please note: English as the language of instruction in previous study will not be accepted as a basis of admission (English) for courses where the approved test score requirement is above an IELTS 6.5 with no band score lower than 6.0.

Pearson Test of English (Academic) (PTE): minimum score of 64 with no communicative skill score less than 59.

Cambridge Certificate of Advanced English (CAE): a grade of B or higher.

Cambridge Certificate of Proficiency in English (CPE): a grade of C or higher.

or approved international equivalent.

If you do not meet these entry requirements you might be interested in La Trobe's Foundation Studies and Diploma Programs, which provide an alternative pathway to La Trobe's undergraduate program. For more information please visit the La Trobe Melbourne website. NB: The scores above are indicative only and may change based on the number of applications received and places available. Achieving the above listed scores does not guarantee an offer of a place.

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Biochemistry and molecular biology - La Trobe University

Genetically Modified Organisms – European Commission

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Food and feed generally originates from plants and animals grown and bred by humans for several thousand years. Over time, those plants and animals with the most desirable characteristics were chosen for breeding the next generations of food and feed. This was, for example, the case for plants with an increased resistance to environmental pressures such as diseases or with an increased yield.

These desirable characteristics appeared through naturally occurring variations in the genetic make-up of those plants and animals. In recent times, it has become possible to modify the genetic make-up of living cells and organisms using techniques of modern biotechnology called gene technology. The genetic material is modified artificially to give it a new property (e.g. a plant's resistance to a disease, insect or drought, a plant's tolerance to a herbicide, improving a food's quality or nutritional value, increased yield).

Such organisms are called "genetically modified organisms" (GMOs). Food and feed which contain or consist of such GMOs, or are produced from GMOs, are called "genetically modified (GM) food or feed".

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Genetically Modified Organisms - European Commission

5 Key Pros and Cons of Human Genetic Engineering | NLCATP.org

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When you take a close look at the human body it is easy to see that it is not without imperfection. This means that some bodies are built with inherent flaws and others fail over time. Science has the ability to change the way that humans are made and alter the flaws that are known. This can be done through the process of human genetic engineering. Altering the technology in humans is a topic that causes a lot of controversy. Human genetic engineering is something that people are either very passionate about or opposed to completely. Differing opinions on this issue drive forward the debate.

1. End Disease Human genetic engineering relies heavily on science in technology. It was developed to help end the spread of diseases. Using human genetic engineering it could be possible to change the way genomes are constructed to end some diseases. Genetic mutations can be to blame for certain diseases including Cystic Fibrosis, but with the help of human genetic engineering it could be possible to end this disease completely. If the complete benefits of human genetic engineering therapy are ever seen, it could have a huge impact on disease as a whole.

2. Longer Life Without certain diseases to increase death rates and decrease life span, it would be possible for more individuals to live longer and healthier lives. This means that human genetic engineering has the potential to improve the quality of life and allow for longer life spans. Reversing some of the cellular causes for decline of the body could be possible if strides are made with human genetic engineering.

3. Eliminating Illness and Disease in Unborn Children One of the largest benefits of genetic engineering is the prospect of helping cure illness and diseases in unborn children. Having a genetic screening with a fetus can allow for treatment of the unborn. Overtime this can impact the growing spread of diseases in future generations.

1. Ethical Issues Many of those opposed to human genetic engineering have their opinion based on ethical views. The belief that god should have ultimate power and we should not be altering nature is what many think should halt the progression of human genetic engineering. The power to shape the human race should not be left up to us humans, because there is divine intervention at work.

2. Safety Issue There are still many different unknowns linked to human genetic engineering. This brings up issues involving of safety. Getting genes into the human body is a complex process that could go bad very easily. The extent to the consequences if it goes bad are not fully known and could be quite devastating. The success rate is also something that brings up concern.

Some feel that more research needs to be done to further human genetic engineering technology, but others feel that this type of engineering has no place in society at all.

In order to obtain a full opinion on the topic of human genetic engineering, it is imperative that you gain a deeper understanding at the most basic level. It is essential that you know exactly what is meant by the concept of human genetic engineering and what it entails. This can be a very complex process, but you can break it down somewhat. In basic terms, human genetic engineering is a way to manipulate genes to make the human body closer to perfection. The altering of the genome has the ability to happen in the sperm or the egg cell. This type of genetic engineering is also referred to as germ line gene therapy and has the ability to change some of the traits a child is born with. The changes that are made through the child using germ line gene therapy would then be inherited traits that would be passed down for generations.

There is also another type of human genetic engineering that involves trading in a bad gene for a good one. This is done in the cells, but does not include the sex cell, which is the process of human genetic engineering refereed to as somatic cell gene therapy. To complete this process of human genetic engineering, functioning genes are fired into the human body to remove the bad function of the inferior gene. This technology does exist to some extent, but it has not been perfected and does not yet have a high success rate.

It is pretty difficult to classify such a complex issue as either good or bad. It is so much more complicated and hard to decipher than that. This issue brings up questions of ethics and often causes outrage among both sides. The only way to gain your own unbiased opinion on the topic of human genetic engineering is to look at both the pros and cons. Not everything involving this issue is a positive, but it is not all negative either.

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5 Key Pros and Cons of Human Genetic Engineering | NLCATP.org

2016 Chemistry Internships in New Jersey | Internships.com

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Are you looking for a Chemistry internship in New Jersey? Chemistry internships are the best way to bridge the gap between going to school and landing great job. Internships can help provide valuable work experience by learning the ropes from more experienced professionals. At the end of your internship, youll have relevant experience to help you decide if starting your career in the field of your internship is the right choice for you. It also helps that 7 out of 10 internships result in a full time job offer, which means interning in New Jersey can also serve as the foundation to landing a full time job in that city after graduation.

Chemistry summer internships in New Jersey are pretty common, but don't expect to be in charge at the end of your internship! Usually, youll have to work from the bottom up, but interns are much more likely to get a job offer from the employer theyre interning with. If you decide to intern at a smaller company, youll sacrifice the name prestige for other benefits, such as having an opportunity to see your projects go from start to finish. Simply gaining Chemistry experience is essential in order to provide value and creativity to the team.

Ready to get started? Search for Chemistry internships in New Jersey below.

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2016 Chemistry Internships in New Jersey | Internships.com

The Neuroscience Center of Northern New Jersey – Neurology …

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Practice Overview

The Neuroscience Center of Northern New Jersey is a group of physicians serving adults (ages 16 and older) of the Morristown area since 1981. They work together to provide 24-hour quality care, 365 days a year. As board certified neurologists they are specialists in the diagnosis and treatment of nervous system disorders, which include diseases of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and muscles. Our physicians combine extensive experience, compassion and the latest technology in addressing your neurological concerns.

At The Neuroscience Center of Northern New Jersey, you will have your own physician. Because the physicians regularly consult with one another and cover each other for emergency calls, you recieve the benefit of a combined professional experience. In the event that your physician is not available, there is always a physician who is available and prepared to take care of you.

Dr. Stuart W. Fox, Dr. Mark S. Diamond, Dr. Richard S. Rosenberg, Dr. Matthew Frank Conigliari, Dr. Oladotun A. Okunola, and Dr. Mathew N. Alias are affiliated with the Neuroscience Center of Northern New Jersey and are diplomates of the American Board of Neurology. Our physicians combine extensive experience, compassion, and the latest technology in addressing your neurological concerns.

About Neurology

Neurology is the medical specialty that deals with disorders of the nervous system, which include diseases of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and muscles. Some of the more common conditions that neurologists diagnose and treat are as follows:

Please bookmark this page as your home base for neurology information. All other pages of our website can be accessed on the left side navigation bar. We hope you find this information helpful in your health and medical care decisions. Please contact us with any questions or for an appointment.

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The Neuroscience Center of Northern New Jersey - Neurology ...

1. What is agricultural biotechnology? – GreenFacts

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Broadly speaking, biotechnology is any technique that uses living organisms or substances from these organisms to make or modify a product for a practical purpose (Box 2). Biotechnology can be applied to all classes of organism - from viruses and bacteria to plants and animals - and it is becoming a major feature of modern medicine, agriculture and industry. Modern agricultural biotechnology includes a range of tools that scientists employ to understand and manipulate the genetic make-up of organisms for use in the production or processing of agricultural products.

Some applications of biotechnology, such as fermentation and brewing, have been used for millennia. Other applications are newer but also well established. For example, micro-organisms have been used for decades as living factories for the production of life-saving antibiotics including penicillin, from the fungus Penicillium, and streptomycin from the bacterium Streptomyces. Modern detergents rely on enzymes produced via biotechnology, hard cheese production largely relies on rennet produced by biotech yeast and human insulin for diabetics is now produced using biotechnology.

Biotechnology is being used to address problems in all areas of agricultural production and processing. This includes plant breeding to raise and stabilize yields; to improve resistance to pests, diseases and abiotic stresses such as drought and cold; and to enhance the nutritional content of foods. Biotechnology is being used to develop low-cost disease-free planting materials for crops such as cassava, banana and potato and is creating new tools for the diagnosis and treatment of plant and animal diseases and for the measurement and conservation of genetic resources. Biotechnology is being used to speed up breeding programmes for plants, livestock and fish and to extend the range of traits that can be addressed. Animal feeds and feeding practices are being changed by biotechnology to improve animal nutrition and to reduce environmental waste. Biotechnology is used in disease diagnostics and for the production of vaccines against animal diseases.

Clearly, biotechnology is more than genetic engineering. Indeed, some of the least controversial aspects of agricultural biotechnology are potentially the most powerful and the most beneficial for the poor. Genomics, for example, is revolutionizing our understanding of the ways genes, cells, organisms and ecosystems function and is opening new horizons for marker-assisted breeding and genetic resource management. At the same time, genetic engineering is a very powerful tool whose role should be carefully evaluated. It is important to understand how biotechnology - particularly genetic engineering - complements and extends other approaches if sensible decisions are to be made about its use.

This chapter provides a brief description of current and emerging uses of biotechnology in crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry with a view to understanding the technologies themselves and the ways they complement and extend other approaches. It should be emphasized that the tools of biotechnology are just that: tools, not ends in themselves. As with any tool, they must be assessed within the context in which they are being used.

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1. What is agricultural biotechnology? - GreenFacts

Biotechnology Industry Salaries, Bonuses and Benefits …

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What are some average salaries for jobs in the Biotechnology industry? These pages lists all of the job titles in the Biotechnology industry for which we have salary information. If you know the pay grade of the job you are searching for you can narrow down this list to only view Biotechnology industry jobs that pay less than $30K, $30K-$50K, $50K-$80K, $80K-$100K, or more than $100K. If you are unsure how much your Biotechnology industry job pays you can choose to either browse all Biotechnology industry salaries below or you can search all salaries.

Category: All Accounting Administrative, Support, and Clerical Advertising Aerospace and Defense Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing Architecture Arts and Entertainment Automotive Aviation and Airlines Banking Biotechnology Clergy Construction and Installation Consulting Services Customer Services Education Energy and Utilities Engineering Entry Level Environment Executive and Management Facilities, Maintenance, and Repair Financial Services Fire, Law Enforcement, and Security Food, Beverage, and Tobacco Government Graphic Arts Healthcare -- Administrative Healthcare -- Nursing Healthcare -- Practitioners Healthcare -- Technicians Hotel, Gaming, Leisure, and Travel Human Resources Insurance Internet and New Media IT -- All IT -- Computers, Hardware IT -- Computers, Software IT -- Executive, Consulting IT -- Manager IT -- Networking Legal Services Library Services Logistics Manufacturing Marketing Materials Management Media -- Broadcast Media -- Print Military Mining Non-Profit and Social Services Personal Care and Service Pharmaceuticals Planning Printing and Publishing Public Relations Purchasing Real Estate Restaurant and Food Services Retail/Wholesale Sales Science and Research Skilled and Trades Sports and Recreation Telecommunications Training Transportation and Warehousing

Industry: Aerospace & Defense Biotechnology Business Services Chemicals Construction Edu., Gov't. & Nonprofit Energy & Utilities Financial Services Healthcare Hospitality & Leisure Insurance Internet Media MFG Durable MFG Nondurable Pharmaceuticals Retail & Wholesale Software & Networking Telecom Transportation

Income Level: All $100,000+ $80,000 - $100,000 $50,000 - $80,000 $30,000 - $50,000 $10,000 - $30,000

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Biotechnology Industry Salaries, Bonuses and Benefits ...

Biochemistry – Wikipedia

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Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms.[1] By controlling information flow through biochemical signaling and the flow of chemical energy through metabolism, biochemical processes give rise to the complexity of life. Over the last decades of the 20th century, biochemistry has become so successful at explaining living processes that now almost all areas of the life sciences from botany to medicine to genetics are engaged in biochemical research.[2] Today, the main focus of pure biochemistry is on understanding how biological molecules give rise to the processes that occur within living cells,[3] which in turn relates greatly to the study and understanding of tissues, organs, and whole organisms[4]that is, all of biology.

Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms by which genetic information encoded in DNA is able to result in the processes of life.[5] Depending on the exact definition of the terms used, molecular biology can be thought of as a branch of biochemistry, or biochemistry as a tool with which to investigate and study molecular biology.

Much of biochemistry deals with the structures, functions and interactions of biological macromolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids, which provide the structure of cells and perform many of the functions associated with life.[6] The chemistry of the cell also depends on the reactions of smaller molecules and ions. These can be inorganic, for example water and metal ions, or organic, for example the amino acids, which are used to synthesize proteins.[7] The mechanisms by which cells harness energy from their environment via chemical reactions are known as metabolism. The findings of biochemistry are applied primarily in medicine, nutrition, and agriculture. In medicine, biochemists investigate the causes and cures of diseases.[8] In nutrition, they study how to maintain health and study the effects of nutritional deficiencies.[9] In agriculture, biochemists investigate soil and fertilizers, and try to discover ways to improve crop cultivation, crop storage and pest control.

At its broadest definition, biochemistry can be seen as a study of the components and composition of living things and how they come together to become life, and the history of biochemistry may therefore go back as far as the ancient Greeks.[10] However, biochemistry as a specific scientific discipline has its beginning sometime in the 19th century, or a little earlier, depending on which aspect of biochemistry is being focused on. Some argued that the beginning of biochemistry may have been the discovery of the first enzyme, diastase (today called amylase), in 1833 by Anselme Payen,[11] while others considered Eduard Buchner's first demonstration of a complex biochemical process alcoholic fermentation in cell-free extracts in 1897 to be the birth of biochemistry.[12][13] Some might also point as its beginning to the influential 1842 work by Justus von Liebig, Animal chemistry, or, Organic chemistry in its applications to physiology and pathology, which presented a chemical theory of metabolism,[10] or even earlier to the 18th century studies on fermentation and respiration by Antoine Lavoisier.[14][15] Many other pioneers in the field who helped to uncover the layers of complexity of biochemistry have been proclaimed founders of modern biochemistry, for example Emil Fischer for his work on the chemistry of proteins,[16] and F. Gowland Hopkins on enzymes and the dynamic nature of biochemistry.[17]

The term "biochemistry" itself is derived from a combination of biology and chemistry. In 1877, Felix Hoppe-Seyler used the term (biochemie in German) as a synonym for physiological chemistry in the foreword to the first issue of Zeitschrift fr Physiologische Chemie (Journal of Physiological Chemistry) where he argued for the setting up of institutes dedicated to this field of study.[18][19] The German chemist Carl Neuberg however is often cited to have coined the word in 1903,[20][21][22] while some credited it to Franz Hofmeister.[23]

It was once generally believed that life and its materials had some essential property or substance (often referred to as the "vital principle") distinct from any found in non-living matter, and it was thought that only living beings could produce the molecules of life.[25] Then, in 1828, Friedrich Whler published a paper on the synthesis of urea, proving that organic compounds can be created artificially.[26] Since then, biochemistry has advanced, especially since the mid-20th century, with the development of new techniques such as chromatography, X-ray diffraction, dual polarisation interferometry, NMR spectroscopy, radioisotopic labeling, electron microscopy, and molecular dynamics simulations. These techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysis of many molecules and metabolic pathways of the cell, such as glycolysis and the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle).

Another significant historic event in biochemistry is the discovery of the gene and its role in the transfer of information in the cell. This part of biochemistry is often called molecular biology.[27] In the 1950s, James D. Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, and Maurice Wilkins were instrumental in solving DNA structure and suggesting its relationship with genetic transfer of information.[28] In 1958, George Beadle and Edward Tatum received the Nobel Prize for work in fungi showing that one gene produces one enzyme.[29] In 1988, Colin Pitchfork was the first person convicted of murder with DNA evidence, which led to the growth of forensic science.[30] More recently, Andrew Z. Fire and Craig C. Mello received the 2006 Nobel Prize for discovering the role of RNA interference (RNAi), in the silencing of gene expression.[31]

Around two dozen of the 92 naturally occurring chemical elements are essential to various kinds of biological life. Most rare elements on Earth are not needed by life (exceptions being selenium and iodine), while a few common ones (aluminum and titanium) are not used. Most organisms share element needs, but there are a few differences between plants and animals. For example, ocean algae use bromine, but land plants and animals seem to need none. All animals require sodium, but some plants do not. Plants need boron and silicon, but animals may not (or may need ultra-small amounts).

Just six elementscarbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, calcium, and phosphorusmake up almost 99% of the mass of living cells, including those in the human body (see composition of the human body for a complete list). In addition to the six major elements that compose most of the human body, humans require smaller amounts of possibly 18 more.[32]

The four main classes of molecules in biochemistry (often called biomolecules) are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.[33] Many biological molecules are polymers: in this terminology, monomers are relatively small micromolecules that are linked together to create large macromolecules known as polymers. When monomers are linked together to synthesize a biological polymer, they undergo a process called dehydration synthesis. Different macromolecules can assemble in larger complexes, often needed for biological activity.

The function of carbohydrates includes energy storage and providing structure. Sugars are carbohydrates, but not all carbohydrates are sugars. There are more carbohydrates on Earth than any other known type of biomolecule; they are used to store energy and genetic information, as well as play important roles in cell to cell interactions and communications.

The simplest type of carbohydrate is a monosaccharide, which among other properties contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, mostly in a ratio of 1:2:1 (generalized formula CnH2nOn, where n is at least 3). Glucose (C6H12O6) is one of the most important carbohydrates, others include fructose (C6H12O6), the sugar commonly associated with the sweet taste of fruits,[34][a] and deoxyribose (C5H10O4).

A monosaccharide can switch from the acyclic (open-chain) form to a cyclic form, through a nucleophilic addition reaction between the carbonyl group and one of the hydroxyls of the same molecule. The reaction creates a ring of carbon atoms closed by one bridging oxygen atom. The resulting molecule has an hemiacetal or hemiketal group, depending on whether the linear form was an aldose or a ketose. The reaction is easily reversed, yielding the original open-chain form.[35]

In these cyclic forms, the ring usually has 5 or 6 atoms. These forms are called furanoses and pyranoses, respectively by analogy with furan and pyran, the simplest compounds with the same carbon-oxygen ring (although they lack the double bonds of these two molecules). For example, the aldohexose glucose may form a hemiacetal linkage between the hydroxyl on carbon 1 and the oxygen on carbon 4, yielding a molecule with a 5-membered ring, called glucofuranose. The same reaction can take place between carbons 1 and 5 to form a molecule with a 6-membered ring, called glucopyranose. Cyclic forms with a 7-atom ring (the same of oxepane), rarely encountered, are called heptoses.

When two monosaccharides undergo dehydration synthesis whereby a molecule of water is released, as two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom are lost from the two monosaccharides. The new molecule, consisting of two monosaccharides, is called a disaccharide and is conjoined together by a glycosidic or ether bond. The reverse reaction can also occur, using a molecule of water to split up a disaccharide and break the glycosidic bond; this is termed hydrolysis. The most well-known disaccharide is sucrose, ordinary sugar (in scientific contexts, called table sugar or cane sugar to differentiate it from other sugars). Sucrose consists of a glucose molecule and a fructose molecule joined together. Another important disaccharide is lactose, consisting of a glucose molecule and a galactose molecule. As most humans age, the production of lactase, the enzyme that hydrolyzes lactose back into glucose and galactose, typically decreases. This results in lactase deficiency, also called lactose intolerance.

When a few (around three to six) monosaccharides are joined, it is called an oligosaccharide (oligo- meaning "few"). These molecules tend to be used as markers and signals, as well as having some other uses.[36] Many monosaccharides joined together make a polysaccharide. They can be joined together in one long linear chain, or they may be branched. Two of the most common polysaccharides are cellulose and glycogen, both consisting of repeating glucose monomers. Examples are Cellulose which is an important structural component of plant's cell walls, and glycogen, used as a form of energy storage in animals.

Sugar can be characterized by having reducing or non-reducing ends. A reducing end of a carbohydrate is a carbon atom that can be in equilibrium with the open-chain aldehyde (aldose) or keto form (ketose). If the joining of monomers takes place at such a carbon atom, the free hydroxy group of the pyranose or furanose form is exchanged with an OH-side-chain of another sugar, yielding a full acetal. This prevents opening of the chain to the aldehyde or keto form and renders the modified residue non-reducing. Lactose contains a reducing end at its glucose moiety, whereas the galactose moiety form a full acetal with the C4-OH group of glucose. Saccharose does not have a reducing end because of full acetal formation between the aldehyde carbon of glucose (C1) and the keto carbon of fructose (C2).

Lipids comprises a diverse range of molecules and to some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble or nonpolar compounds of biological origin, including waxes, fatty acids, fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids, and terpenoids (e.g., retinoids and steroids). Some lipids are linear aliphatic molecules, while others have ring structures. Some are aromatic, while others are not. Some are flexible, while others are rigid.[39]

Lipids are usually made from one molecule of glycerol combined with other molecules. In triglycerides, the main group of bulk lipids, there is one molecule of glycerol and three fatty acids. Fatty acids are considered the monomer in that case, and may be saturated (no double bonds in the carbon chain) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds in the carbon chain).[40]

Most lipids have some polar character in addition to being largely nonpolar. In general, the bulk of their structure is nonpolar or hydrophobic ("water-fearing"), meaning that it does not interact well with polar solvents like water. Another part of their structure is polar or hydrophilic ("water-loving") and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water. This makes them amphiphilic molecules (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions). In the case of cholesterol, the polar group is a mere -OH (hydroxyl or alcohol). In the case of phospholipids, the polar groups are considerably larger and more polar, as described below.[41]

Lipids are an integral part of our daily diet. Most oils and milk products that we use for cooking and eating like butter, cheese, ghee etc., are composed of fats. Vegetable oils are rich in various polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Lipid-containing foods undergo digestion within the body and are broken into fatty acids and glycerol, which are the final degradation products of fats and lipids. Lipids, especially phospholipids, are also used in various pharmaceutical products, either as co-solubilisers (e.g., in parenteral infusions) or else as drug carrier components (e.g., in a liposome or transfersome).

Proteins are very large molecules macro-biopolymers made from monomers called amino acids. An amino acid consists of a carbon atom bound to four groups. One is an amino group, NH2, and one is a carboxylic acid group, COOH (although these exist as NH3+ and COO under physiologic conditions). The third is a simple hydrogen atom. The fourth is commonly denoted "R" and is different for each amino acid. There are 20 standard amino acids, each containing a carboxyl group, an amino group, and a side-chain (known as an "R" group). The "R" group is what makes each amino acid different, and the properties of the side-chains greatly influence the overall three-dimensional conformation of a protein. Some amino acids have functions by themselves or in a modified form; for instance, glutamate functions as an important neurotransmitter. Amino acids can be joined via a peptide bond. In this dehydration synthesis, a water molecule is removed and the peptide bond connects the nitrogen of one amino acid's amino group to the carbon of the other's carboxylic acid group. The resulting molecule is called a dipeptide, and short stretches of amino acids (usually, fewer than thirty) are called peptides or polypeptides. Longer stretches merit the title proteins. As an example, the important blood serum protein albumin contains 585 amino acid residues.[42]

Some proteins perform largely structural roles. For instance, movements of the proteins actin and myosin ultimately are responsible for the contraction of skeletal muscle. One property many proteins have is that they specifically bind to a certain molecule or class of moleculesthey may be extremely selective in what they bind. Antibodies are an example of proteins that attach to one specific type of molecule. In fact, the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), which uses antibodies, is one of the most sensitive tests modern medicine uses to detect various biomolecules. Probably the most important proteins, however, are the enzymes. Virtually every reaction in a living cell requires an enzyme to lower the activation energy of the reaction. These molecules recognize specific reactant molecules called substrates; they then catalyze the reaction between them. By lowering the activation energy, the enzyme speeds up that reaction by a rate of 1011 or more; a reaction that would normally take over 3,000 years to complete spontaneously might take less than a second with an enzyme. The enzyme itself is not used up in the process, and is free to catalyze the same reaction with a new set of substrates. Using various modifiers, the activity of the enzyme can be regulated, enabling control of the biochemistry of the cell as a whole.

The structure of proteins is traditionally described in a hierarchy of four levels. The primary structure of a protein simply consists of its linear sequence of amino acids; for instance, "alanine-glycine-tryptophan-serine-glutamate-asparagine-glycine-lysine-". Secondary structure is concerned with local morphology (morphology being the study of structure). Some combinations of amino acids will tend to curl up in a coil called an -helix or into a sheet called a -sheet; some -helixes can be seen in the hemoglobin schematic above. Tertiary structure is the entire three-dimensional shape of the protein. This shape is determined by the sequence of amino acids. In fact, a single change can change the entire structure. The alpha chain of hemoglobin contains 146 amino acid residues; substitution of the glutamate residue at position 6 with a valine residue changes the behavior of hemoglobin so much that it results in sickle-cell disease. Finally, quaternary structure is concerned with the structure of a protein with multiple peptide subunits, like hemoglobin with its four subunits. Not all proteins have more than one subunit.[43]

Ingested proteins are usually broken up into single amino acids or dipeptides in the small intestine, and then absorbed. They can then be joined to make new proteins. Intermediate products of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the pentose phosphate pathway can be used to make all twenty amino acids, and most bacteria and plants possess all the necessary enzymes to synthesize them. Humans and other mammals, however, can synthesize only half of them. They cannot synthesize isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. These are the essential amino acids, since it is essential to ingest them. Mammals do possess the enzymes to synthesize alanine, asparagine, aspartate, cysteine, glutamate, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine, the nonessential amino acids. While they can synthesize arginine and histidine, they cannot produce it in sufficient amounts for young, growing animals, and so these are often considered essential amino acids.

If the amino group is removed from an amino acid, it leaves behind a carbon skeleton called an -keto acid. Enzymes called transaminases can easily transfer the amino group from one amino acid (making it an -keto acid) to another -keto acid (making it an amino acid). This is important in the biosynthesis of amino acids, as for many of the pathways, intermediates from other biochemical pathways are converted to the -keto acid skeleton, and then an amino group is added, often via transamination. The amino acids may then be linked together to make a protein.[44]

A similar process is used to break down proteins. It is first hydrolyzed into its component amino acids. Free ammonia (NH3), existing as the ammonium ion (NH4+) in blood, is toxic to life forms. A suitable method for excreting it must therefore exist. Different tactics have evolved in different animals, depending on the animals' needs. Unicellular organisms, of course, simply release the ammonia into the environment. Likewise, bony fish can release the ammonia into the water where it is quickly diluted. In general, mammals convert the ammonia into urea, via the urea cycle.[45]

In order to determine whether two proteins are related, or in other words to decide whether they are homologous or not, scientists use sequence-comparison methods. Methods like sequence alignments and structural alignments are powerful tools that help scientists identify homologies between related molecules.[46] The relevance of finding homologies among proteins goes beyond forming an evolutionary pattern of protein families. By finding how similar two protein sequences are, we acquire knowledge about their structure and therefore their function.

Nucleic acids, so called because of its prevalence in cellular nuclei, is the generic name of the family of biopolymers. They are complex, high-molecular-weight biochemical macromolecules that can convey genetic information in all living cells and viruses.[2] The monomers are called nucleotides, and each consists of three components: a nitrogenous heterocyclic base (either a purine or a pyrimidine), a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.[47]

The most common nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).[48] The phosphate group and the sugar of each nucleotide bond with each other to form the backbone of the nucleic acid, while the sequence of nitrogenous bases stores the information. The most common nitrogenous bases are adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, and uracil. The nitrogenous bases of each strand of a nucleic acid will form hydrogen bonds with certain other nitrogenous bases in a complementary strand of nucleic acid (similar to a zipper). Adenine binds with thymine and uracil; Thymine binds only with adenine; and cytosine and guanine can bind only with one another.

Aside from the genetic material of the cell, nucleic acids often play a role as second messengers, as well as forming the base molecule for adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the primary energy-carrier molecule found in all living organisms.[49] Also, the nitrogenous bases possible in the two nucleic acids are different: adenine, cytosine, and guanine occur in both RNA and DNA, while thymine occurs only in DNA and uracil occurs in RNA.

Glucose is the major energy source in most life forms. For instance, polysaccharides are broken down into their monomers (glycogen phosphorylase removes glucose residues from glycogen). Disaccharides like lactose or sucrose are cleaved into their two component monosaccharides.

Glucose is mainly metabolized by a very important ten-step pathway called glycolysis, the net result of which is to break down one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate. This also produces a net two molecules of ATP, the energy currency of cells, along with two reducing equivalents of converting NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide:oxidised form) to NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide:reduced form). This does not require oxygen; if no oxygen is available (or the cell cannot use oxygen), the NAD is restored by converting the pyruvate to lactate (lactic acid) (e.g., in humans) or to ethanol plus carbon dioxide (e.g., in yeast). Other monosaccharides like galactose and fructose can be converted into intermediates of the glycolytic pathway.[50]

In aerobic cells with sufficient oxygen, as in most human cells, the pyruvate is further metabolized. It is irreversibly converted to acetyl-CoA, giving off one carbon atom as the waste product carbon dioxide, generating another reducing equivalent as NADH. The two molecules acetyl-CoA (from one molecule of glucose) then enter the citric acid cycle, producing two more molecules of ATP, six more NADH molecules and two reduced (ubi)quinones (via FADH2 as enzyme-bound cofactor), and releasing the remaining carbon atoms as carbon dioxide. The produced NADH and quinol molecules then feed into the enzyme complexes of the respiratory chain, an electron transport system transferring the electrons ultimately to oxygen and conserving the released energy in the form of a proton gradient over a membrane (inner mitochondrial membrane in eukaryotes). Thus, oxygen is reduced to water and the original electron acceptors NAD+ and quinone are regenerated. This is why humans breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide. The energy released from transferring the electrons from high-energy states in NADH and quinol is conserved first as proton gradient and converted to ATP via ATP synthase. This generates an additional 28 molecules of ATP (24 from the 8 NADH + 4 from the 2 quinols), totaling to 32 molecules of ATP conserved per degraded glucose (two from glycolysis + two from the citrate cycle).[51] It is clear that using oxygen to completely oxidize glucose provides an organism with far more energy than any oxygen-independent metabolic feature, and this is thought to be the reason why complex life appeared only after Earth's atmosphere accumulated large amounts of oxygen.

In vertebrates, vigorously contracting skeletal muscles (during weightlifting or sprinting, for example) do not receive enough oxygen to meet the energy demand, and so they shift to anaerobic metabolism, converting glucose to lactate. The liver regenerates the glucose, using a process called gluconeogenesis. This process is not quite the opposite of glycolysis, and actually requires three times the amount of energy gained from glycolysis (six molecules of ATP are used, compared to the two gained in glycolysis). Analogous to the above reactions, the glucose produced can then undergo glycolysis in tissues that need energy, be stored as glycogen (or starch in plants), or be converted to other monosaccharides or joined into di- or oligosaccharides. The combined pathways of glycolysis during exercise, lactate's crossing via the bloodstream to the liver, subsequent gluconeogenesis and release of glucose into the bloodstream is called the Cori cycle.[52]

Researchers in biochemistry use specific techniques native to biochemistry, but increasingly combine these with techniques and ideas developed in the fields of genetics, molecular biology and biophysics. There has never been a hard-line among these disciplines in terms of content and technique. Today, the terms molecular biology and biochemistry are nearly interchangeable. The following figure is a schematic that depicts one possible view of the relationship between the fields:

a. ^ Fructose is not the only sugar found in fruits. Glucose and sucrose are also found in varying quantities in various fruits, and indeed sometimes exceed the fructose present. For example, 32% of the edible portion of date is glucose, compared with 23.70% fructose and 8.20% sucrose. However, peaches contain more sucrose (6.66%) than they do fructose (0.93%) or glucose (1.47%).[55]

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Human reproduction – Wikipedia

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Human reproduction is any form of sexual reproduction resulting in human fertilization, typically involving sexual intercourse between a man and a woman. During sexual intercourse, the interaction between the male and female reproductive systems results in fertilization of the woman's ovum by the man's sperm. These are specialized reproductive cells called gametes, created in a process called meiosis. While normal cells contains 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs, gamete cells only contain 23 chromosomes, and it is when these two cells merge into one zygote cell that genetic recombination occurs and the new zygote contains 23 chromosomes from each parent, giving them 23 pairs. After a gestation period, typically for nine months, is followed by childbirth. The fertilization of the ovum may be achieved by artificial insemination methods, which do not involve sexual intercourse.

The male reproductive system contains two main divisions: the testes where sperm are produced, and the penis. In humans, both of these organs are outside the abdominal cavity. Having the testes outside the abdomen facilitates temperature regulation of the sperm, which require specific temperatures to survive about 2-3C less than the normal body temperature i.e. 37C. In particular, the extraperitoneal location of the testes may result in a 2-fold reduction in the heat-induced contribution to the spontaneous mutation rate in male germinal tissues compared to tissues at 37C.[1] If the testicles remain too close to the body, it is likely that the increase in temperature will harm the spermatozoa formation, making conception more difficult. This is why the testes are carried in an external pouch viz. scrotum rather than within the abdomen; they normally remain slightly cooler than body temperature, facilitating sperm production.

The female reproductive system likewise contains two main divisions: the vagina and uterus, which will receive the semen, and the ovaries, which produces the ova. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus is attached to the ovaries via the Fallopian tubes. At certain intervals, the ovaries release an ovum, which passes through the fallopian tube into the uterus.

The fertilization of the ovum with the sperm occurs at the ampullary-isthimic junction only. That is why not all intercourse results in pregnancy. The ovum meets with Spermatozoon, a sperm may penetrate and merge with the egg, fertilizing it with the help of certain hydrolytic enzymes present in the acrosome. The fertilization usually occurs in the oviducts, but can happen in the uterus itself. The zygote then becomes implanted in the lining of the uterus, where it begins the processes of embryogenesis and morphogenesis. When the fetus is developed enough to survive outside the womb, the cervix dilates and contractions of the uterus propel it through the birth canal, which is the vagina.

The ova, which are the female sex cells, are much larger than the spermatozoon and are normally formed within the ovaries of the female fetus before its birth. They are mostly fixed in location within the ovary until their transit to the uterus, and contain nutrients for the later zygote and embryo. Over a regular interval, in response to hormonal signals, a process of oogenesis matures one ovum which is released and sent down the Fallopian tube. If not fertilized, this egg is flushed out of the system through menstruation.

Human reproduction normally begins with sexual intercourse, followed by nine months of pregnancy before childbirth, though it may be achieved through artificial insemination. Many years of parental care are required before a human child becomes independent, typically between twelve and eighteen or more. Pregnancy can be avoided with the use of contraceptives such as condoms and Intrauterine devices.

Human reproduction takes place as internal fertilisation by sexual intercourse. During this process, the male inserts his penis, which needs to be erect, into the female's vagina, and then either partner initiates rhythmic pelvic thrusts until the male ejaculates semen, which contains sperm, into the vaginal canal. This process is also known as "coitus", "mating", "having sex", or, euphemistically, "making love". The sperm and the ovum are known as gametes (each containing half the genetic information of the parent, created through meiosis). The sperm (being one of approximately 250 million sperm in a typical male ejaculation) travels through the vagina and cervix into the uterus or Fallopian tubes. Only 1 in 14 million of the ejaculated sperm will reach the Fallopian tube. The egg simultaneously moves through the Fallopian tube away from the ovary. One of the sperm encounters, penetrates and fertilizes the ovum, creating a zygote. Upon fertilization and implantation, gestation of the fetus then occurs within the female's uterus.[2][3][4][5]

Pregnancy is the period of time during which the fetus develops, dividing via mitosis inside the female. During this time, the fetus receives all of its nutrition and oxygenated blood from the female, filtered through the placenta, which is attached to the fetus' abdomen via an umbilical cord. This drain of nutrients can be quite taxing on the female, who is required to ingest slightly higher levels of calories. In addition, certain vitamins and other nutrients are required in greater quantities than normal, often creating abnormal eating habits. Gestation period is about 266 days in humans. While in the uterus, the baby first endures a very brief zygote stage, then the embryonic stage, which is marked by the development of major organs and lasts for approximately eight weeks, then the fetal stage, which revolves around the development of bone cells while the fetus continues to grow in size.[6]

Once the fetus is sufficiently developed, chemical signals begin the process of birth, which begins with the fetus being pushed out of the birthing canal. The newborn, which is called an Infant in humans, should typically begin respiration on its own shortly after birth. Not long after, the placenta eventually falls off on its own. The person assisting the birth may also sever the umbilical cord.

A human baby is nearly helpless and the growing child requires high levels of parental care for many years. One important type of early parental care is lactation, feeding the baby milk from the mother's mammary glands in her breasts.[7]

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Neurology – Wikipedia

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Neurology (from Greek: , neuron, and the suffix - -logia "study of") is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the nervous system. Neurology deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of conditions and disease involving the central and peripheral nervous system (and its subdivisions, the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system); including their coverings, blood vessels, and all effector tissue, such as muscle.[1] Neurological practice relies heavily on the field of neuroscience, which is the scientific study of the nervous system.

A neurologist is a physician specializing in neurology and trained to investigate, or diagnose and treat neurological disorders.[2] Neurologists may also be involved in clinical research, clinical trials, and basic or translational research. While neurology is a non-surgical specialty, its corresponding surgical specialty is neurosurgery.[2]

A large number of neurological disorders have been described as listed. These can affect the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), the peripheral nervous system, the autonomic nervous system and the muscular system.

Occupation type

Activity sectors

Education required

Many neurologists also have additional training or interest in one area of neurology, such as stroke, epilepsy, neuromuscular, sleep medicine, pain management, or movement disorders.

In the United States and Canada, neurologists are physicians having completed postgraduate training in neurology after graduation from medical school. Neurologists complete, on average, at least 1013 years of college education and clinical training. This training includes obtaining a four-year undergraduate degree, a medical degree (D.O. or M.D.), which comprises an additional four years of study, and then completing a one-year internship and a three-year residency in neurology.[6] The four-year residency consists of one year of internal medicine internship training followed by three years of training in neurology.

Some neurologists receive additional subspecialty training focusing on a particular area of neurology. These training programs are called fellowships, and are one to two years in duration. Sub-specialties include: brain injury medicine, clinical neurophysiology, epilepsy, hospice and palliative medicine, neurodevelopmental disabilities, neuromuscular medicine, pain medicine and sleep medicine, neurocritical care, vascular neurology (stroke),[7]behavioral neurology, child neurology, headache, multiple sclerosis, neuroimaging, neurorehabilitation, and interventional neurology.

In Germany, a compulsory year of psychiatry must be done to complete a residency of neurology.

In the United Kingdom and Ireland, neurology is a subspecialty of general (internal) medicine. After five to nine years of medical school and a year as a pre-registration house officer (or two years on the Foundation Programme), a neurologist must pass the examination for Membership of the Royal College of Physicians (or the Irish equivalent) before completing two years of core medical training and then entering specialist training in neurology. A generation ago, some neurologists would have also spent a couple of years working in psychiatric units and obtain a Diploma in Psychological Medicine. However, this requirement has become uncommon, and, now that a basic psychiatric qualification takes three years to obtain, the requirement is no longer practical. A period of research is essential, and obtaining a higher degree aids career progression: Many found it was eased after an attachment to the Institute of Neurology at Queen Square, London. Some neurologists enter the field of rehabilitation medicine (known as physiatry in the US) to specialise in neurological rehabilitation, which may include stroke medicine as well as brain injuries.

During a neurological examination, the neurologist reviews the patient's health history with special attention to the current condition. The patient then takes a neurological exam. Typically, the exam tests mental status, function of the cranial nerves (including vision), strength, coordination, reflexes, and sensation. This information helps the neurologist determine whether the problem exists in the nervous system and the clinical localization. Localization of the pathology is the key process by which neurologists develop their differential diagnosis. Further tests may be needed to confirm a diagnosis and ultimately guide therapy and appropriate management.

Neurologists examine patients who have been referred to them by other physicians in both the inpatient and outpatient settings. A neurologist will begin their interaction with a patient by taking a comprehensive medical history, and then perform a physical examination focusing on evaluating the nervous system. Components of the neurological examination include assessment of the patient's cognitive function, cranial nerves, motor strength, sensation, reflexes, coordination, and gait.

In some instances, neurologists may order additional diagnostic tests as part of the evaluation. Commonly employed tests in neurology include imaging studies such as computed axial tomography (CAT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasound of major blood vessels of the head and neck. Neurophysiologic studies, including electroencephalography (EEG), needle electromyography (EMG), nerve conduction studies (NCSs) and evoked potentials are also commonly ordered. Neurologists frequently perform lumbar punctures in order to assess characteristics of a patient's cerebrospinal fluid. Advances in genetic testing has made genetic testing an important tool in the classification of inherited neuromuscular disease. The role of genetic influences on the development of acquired neuromuscular diseases is an active area of research.

Some of the commonly encountered conditions treated by neurologists include headaches, radiculopathy, neuropathy, stroke, dementia, seizures and epilepsy, Alzheimer's Disease, Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder,[8][9]Parkinson's Disease, Tourette's syndrome, multiple sclerosis, head trauma, sleep disorders, neuromuscular diseases, and various infections and tumors of the nervous system. Neurologists are also asked to evaluate unresponsive patients on life support in order to confirm brain death.

Treatment options vary depending on the neurological problem. They can include everything from referring the patient to a physiotherapist, to prescribing medications, to recommending a surgical procedure.

Some neurologists specialize in certain parts of the nervous system or in specific procedures. For example, clinical neurophysiologists specialize in the use of EEG and intraoperative monitoring in order to diagnose certain neurological disorders.[10] Other neurologists specialize in the use of electrodiagnostic medicine studies - needle EMG and NCSs. In the US, physicians do not typically specialize in all the aspects of clinical neurophysiology - i.e. sleep, EEG, EMG, and NCSs. The American Board of Clinical Neurophysiology certifies US physicians in general clinical neurophysiology, epilepsy, and intraoperative monitoring.[11] The American Board of Electrodiagnostic Medicine certifies US physicians in electrodiagnostic medicine and certifies technologists in nerve conduction studies.[12] Sleep medicine is a subspecialty field in the US under several medical specialties including anesthesiology, internal medicine, family medicine, and neurology.[13] Neurosurgery is a distinct specialty that involves a different training path, and emphasizes the surgical treatment of neurological disorders.

There are also many non-medical doctors, those with PhD degrees in subjects such as biology and chemistry, who study and research the nervous system. Working in labs in universities, hospitals, and private companies, these neuroscientists perform clinical and laboratory experiments and tests in order to learn more about the nervous system and find cures or new treatments for diseases and disorders.

There is a great deal of overlap between neuroscience and neurology. A large number of neurologists work in academic training hospitals, where they conduct research as neuroscientists in addition to treating patients and teaching neurology to medical students.

Neurologists are responsible for the diagnosis, treatment, and management of all the conditions mentioned above. When surgical intervention is required, the neurologist may refer the patient to a neurosurgeon. In some countries, additional legal responsibilities of a neurologist may include making a finding of brain death when it is suspected that a patient has died. Neurologists frequently care for people with hereditary (genetic) diseases when the major manifestations are neurological, as is frequently the case. Lumbar punctures are frequently performed by neurologists. Some neurologists may develop an interest in particular subfields, such as stroke, dementia, movement disorders, neurointensive care, headaches, epilepsy, sleep disorders, chronic pain management, multiple sclerosis, or neuromuscular diseases.

There is some overlap with other specialties, varying from country to country and even within a local geographic area. Acute head trauma is most often treated by neurosurgeons, whereas sequelae of head trauma may be treated by neurologists or specialists in rehabilitation medicine. Although stroke cases have been traditionally managed by internal medicine or hospitalists, the emergence of vascular neurology and interventional neurologists has created a demand for stroke specialists. The establishment of Joint Commission certified stroke centers has increased the role of neurologists in stroke care in many primary as well as tertiary hospitals. Some cases of nervous system infectious diseases are treated by infectious disease specialists. Most cases of headache are diagnosed and treated primarily by general practitioners, at least the less severe cases. Likewise, most cases of sciatica and other mechanical radiculopathies are treated by general practitioners, though they may be referred to neurologists or a surgeon (neurosurgeons or orthopedic surgeons). Sleep disorders are also treated by pulmonologists and psychiatrists. Cerebral palsy is initially treated by pediatricians, but care may be transferred to an adult neurologist after the patient reaches a certain age. Physical medicine and rehabilitation physicians also in the US diagnosis and treat patients with neuromuscular diseases through the use of electrodiagnostic studies (needle EMG and nerve conduction studies) and other diagnostic tools. In the United Kingdom and other countries, many of the conditions encountered by older patients such as movement disorders including Parkinson's Disease, stroke, dementia or gait disorders are managed predominantly by specialists in geriatric medicine.

Clinical neuropsychologists are often called upon to evaluate brain-behavior relationships for the purpose of assisting with differential diagnosis, planning rehabilitation strategies, documenting cognitive strengths and weaknesses, and measuring change over time (e.g., for identifying abnormal aging or tracking the progression of a dementia).

In some countries, e.g. USA and Germany, neurologists may subspecialize in clinical neurophysiology, the field responsible for EEG and intraoperative monitoring, or in electrodiagnostic medicine nerve conduction studies, EMG and evoked potentials. In other countries, this is an autonomous specialty (e.g., United Kingdom, Sweden, Spain).

Although mental illnesses are believed by many to be neurological disorders affecting the central nervous system, traditionally they are classified separately, and treated by psychiatrists. In a 2002 review article in the American Journal of Psychiatry, Professor Joseph B. Martin, Dean of Harvard Medical School and a neurologist by training, wrote that "the separation of the two categories is arbitrary, often influenced by beliefs rather than proven scientific observations. And the fact that the brain and mind are one makes the separation artificial anyway".[14]

Neurological disorders often have psychiatric manifestations, such as post-stroke depression, depression and dementia associated with Parkinson's disease, mood and cognitive dysfunctions in Alzheimer's disease and Huntington disease, to name a few. Hence, there is not always a sharp distinction between neurology and psychiatry on a biological basis. The dominance of psychoanalytic theory in the first three quarters of the 20th century has since then been largely replaced by a focus on pharmacology.[citation needed] Despite the shift to a medical model, brain science has not advanced to the point where scientists or clinicians can point to readily discernible pathologic lesions or genetic abnormalities that in and of themselves serve as reliable or predictive biomarkers of a given mental disorder.

The emerging field of neurological enhancement highlights the potential of therapies to improve such things as workplace efficacy, attention in school, and overall happiness in personal lives.[15] However, this field has also given rise to questions about neuroethics and the psychopharmacology of lifestyle drugs.

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The #1 Human Anatomy and Physiology Course | Learn …

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1-1 Regions of the human body 1-2 Anatomical position and medial-lateral relationships 1-3A The sagittal plane 1-3B The horizontal plane. 1-3C The frontal plane . 1-4 A "typical" animal cell (as seen in an electron microscope) 1-5 Planes of the body (exercise 14) 1-6 Directions (exercise 15). 1-7 Directions upon members (exercise 16). 1-8 A "typical" animal cell (exercise 18). 2-1 Epithelial cells. 2-2 Types of epithelial tissues 2-3 Types of muscle tissue 2-4 A neuron. 2-5 A synapse 3-1 The integument and related structures. 3-2 The integumentary derivatives (appendages) 3-3 A bursa--the simplest serous cavity 4-1 A matur
e long bone (femur) 4-2 A "typical synovial joint"--diagrammatic 4-3A Anterior view of the human skeleton 4-3B Posterior view of the human skeleton 4-4 A typical vertebra (superior and side views) 4-5 The human thorax with bones of the shoulder region 4-6 The human skull (front and side views) 4-7 A general pattern of the upper and lower members 4-8 The human scapula and clavicle (pectoral girdle) 4-9 The humerus, radius, and ulna 4-10 The human hand 4-11 The bony pelvis (two pelvic bones and sacrum). 4-12 The femur, tibia, and fibula (anterior views) 4-13 The human foot 5-1 Skeletal and facial muscles, anterior view. 5-2 Skeletal and facial muscles, posterior view 5-3 Types of lever systems 5-4 A simple pulley (the human knee mechanism)

5-5 The skeleto-muscular unit (arm-forearm flexion (3rd class lever system)) 6-1 The human digestive system 6-2 Anatomy of the oral complex. 6-3 Section of a tooth and jaw. 7-1 The human respiratory system 7-2 Supralaryngeal structures. 7-3 The larynx. 7-4 Infralaryngeal structures ("respiratory tree") 8-1 The human urinary system. 8-2 A section of a human kidney 8-3 A "typical" nephron 8-4 The human female genital system 8-5 The human male genital system (continued) . 9-1 Scheme of blood vessels 9-2 The human heart.. 9-3 Scheme of heart valves. 9-4 Cardiovascular circulatory patterns 9-5 Main arteries of the human body 9-6 Main veins of the human body 9-7 The human lymphatic system 10-1 The endocrine glands of the human body and their locations.. 11-1 A "typical" neuron . 11-2 A synapse 11-3 A neuromuscular junction. 11-4 The human central nervous system (CNS) . 11-5A Human brain (side view). 11-5B Human brain (bottom view) 11-6 A cross section of the spinal cord. 11-7 A schematic diagram of the meninges, as seen in side view of the CNS 11-8 A "typical" spinal nerve, with a cross section of the spinal cord 11-9 The general reflex arc 11-10 A horizontal section of the eyeball 11-11 Cellular detail of the retina. 11-12 A frontal section of the human ear 11-13 The labyrinths of the internal ear. 11-14 Diagram of the scalae 11-15 Diagram of semicircular duct orientation ..

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GRE biochemistry, practice test for gre subject test in …

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GRE is a registered trademark of the Educational Testing Service (ETS), which is not affiliated with or endorsing this websites or contents of this sites.

Who takes GRE(R) Biochemistry, Cell & Molecular Biology: GRE biochemistry is designed for all students who wish to enter a graduate program in biology major and related majors such as biochemistry (includes environmental biochemistry), molecular biology, genetics, neuroscience, biotechnology, etc.

What is GRE(R) biochemistry: - Examines 1)biochemistry, 2) cell & molec. biology, & 3) genetics. - Paper-based test, composed of 180 multiple choice questions. - 119 multiple choice questrions, 26 matching questions and 35 lab questions. - 1/4 of your wrong answers will be subtracted from your score (no subtraction for unanswered ones).

Average score: 518 points

Prep e-materials:

Test taking strategy for GRE(R) biochemistry:

You don't have to study and memorize all the topics covered in biochemistry, cell bio., and genetics. For example, the test will not ask you to answer the name of diseases caused by a mutation of specific genes. There are major hot topics that are always asked in the test whereas some topics are asked only rarely.

You don't have to read through thousands of pages over months. Just study what you need to study for the exam. We teach you what you need to study. All the necessary information included in this 'GRE Bichemistry Strategy.' (This 'GRE biochemistry Strategy' is included in the GRE biochemistry studying package!)

GRE(R) Biochemistry Practice Tests:

The level of the practice questions is finely designed to be equivalent or slightly more difficult than that of the real test. So you will find the real test easy after you complete these sample tests. Probably, you have already seen several other similar materials and the sample test provided by ETS.

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Nanomedicine Fact Sheet – National Human Genome Research …

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Nanomedicine Overview

What if doctors had tiny tools that could search out and destroy the very first cancer cells of a tumor developing in the body? What if a cell's broken part could be removed and replaced with a functioning miniature biological machine? Or what if molecule-sized pumps could be implanted in sick people to deliver life-saving medicines precisely where they are needed? These scenarios may sound unbelievable, but they are the ultimate goals of nanomedicine, a cutting-edge area of biomedical research that seeks to use nanotechnology tools to improve human health.

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A lot of things are small in today's high-tech world of biomedical tools and therapies. But when it comes to nanomedicine, researchers are talking very, very small. A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter, too small even to be seen with a conventional lab microscope.

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Nanotechnology is the broad scientific field that encompasses nanomedicine. It involves the creation and use of materials and devices at the level of molecules and atoms, which are the parts of matter that combine to make molecules. Non-medical applications of nanotechnology now under development include tiny semiconductor chips made out of strings of single molecules and miniature computers made out of DNA, the material of our genes. Federally supported research in this area, conducted under the rubric of the National Nanotechnology Initiative, is ongoing with coordinated support from several agencies.

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For hundreds of years, microscopes have offered scientists a window inside cells. Researchers have used ever more powerful visualization tools to extensively categorize the parts and sub-parts of cells in vivid detail. Yet, what scientists have not been able to do is to exhaustively inventory cells, cell parts, and molecules within cell parts to answer questions such as, "How many?" "How big?" and "How fast?" Obtaining thorough, reliable measures of quantity is the vital first step of nanomedicine.

As part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Common Fund [nihroadmap.nih.gov], the NIH [nih.gov] has established a handful of nanomedicine centers. These centers are staffed by a highly interdisciplinary scientific crew, including biologists, physicians, mathematicians, engineers and computer scientists. Research conducted over the first few years was spent gathering extensive information about how molecular machines are built.

Once researchers had catalogued the interactions between and within molecules, they turned toward using that information to manipulate those molecular machines to treat specific diseases. For example, one center is trying to return at least limited vision to people who have lost their sight. Others are trying to develop treatments for severe neurological disorders, cancer, and a serious blood disorder.

The availability of innovative, body-friendly nanotools that depend on precise knowledge of how the body's molecular machines work, will help scientists figure out how to build synthetic biological and biochemical devices that can help the cells in our bodies work the way they were meant to, returning the body to a healthier state.

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Last Updated: January 22, 2014

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Nanomedicine Fact Sheet - National Human Genome Research ...

Boca Integrative Health, PA

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Thank you for visiting Boca Integrative Health, P.A. for primary care/family medicine and psychiatry in Boca Raton!

Boca Integrative Health, PA is a practice like no other in Boca Raton or elsewhere. We are group of professional associations- board certified family primary care, psychiatric physicians and nutritionists- working together to optimize wellness and good health. Whether you choose to see only our primary care, family medicine physicians for general physical health or illness, or you want to improve your mental and emotional wellness by seeing one of our psychiatric practitioners, or you want exceptional nutritional counseling,or you recognize the vital link between mind, body and nutrition and wish to improve all spheres of your life, at Boca Integrative Health you will find the care to be comprehensive and unparalleled.

No two patients are the same, nor are any two problems. At Boca Integrative Health our practitioners use physical, mental and nutritional approaches to maximize health, focus and chance for success. For some patients this means following well established but relatively standard practices of medicine. But for some other patients, it means looking for deeper, more subtle clues to the causes of physical, mental or emotional problems. To do this, the primary care doctor or psychiatrist may use more advanced practices such as, for example, investigating for deficiencies of trace elements necessary for wellness. Regardless of our approach, however, our goals are always to optimize health and to improve the length and quality of your life.

For those patients or parents looking for special accommodations for school or work, seeking to obtain disability benefits, or have other legal, academic or personal interests in psychological assessment, we also offer comprehensive psychological testing for giftedness, disabilities, competency and diagnosis and quantification of particular areas of excellence or deficiency.

In addition to providing exceptional and personal routine well and sick care, our primary care family physicians and psychiatrists root out the causes of, among other ailments:

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Boca Integrative Health, PA