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Bioengineering – Temple University

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Temple University's Bioengineering Department offers students access to the merging worlds of engineering and biological sciences. Bioengineering at Temple University

Bioengineers graduating from our program will be individuals with a solid foundation in not only engineering but also physical and life sciences. Students and researchers going through our department will acquire a strong sense about translational biomedical research as well. Our students and trainees will be exposed to both basic and applied knowledge from diverse areas of engineering and sciences, such as thermodynamics, biomechanics, bioinformatics, bioimaging, bioprocessing, fluid mechanics, polymer chemistry, biomaterials, and cellular, molecular and regenerative engineering.

This knowledge will enable our graduates to join and lead interdisciplinary teams of engineers, scientists and clinicians to solve fundamental problems in the world around us. These problems include the design of innovative smart biomaterials, tissue constructs, medical devices and diagnostic technologies,and other areas that improve the quality of global health care and the standard of living throughout the world. Temple's Bioengineering Department has a strong focus in understanding human biology and associated diseases and injuries to ultimately invent engineering solutions to improve our status quo.

Please refer to our undergraduate and graduate program websites (accessible in the left column and below) for detailed curricula related information. Temple BioE's state-of-the-art faculty research information is available through individual faculty profiles. Please visit our 'Faculty & Staff' website for more details. For additional questions, please e-mail Temple BioE Chair Prof. Peter Lelkes at pilelkes@temple.edu or any other faculty member.

View detailed information about the department's accreditation

A detailed look at the facts and mission behind the Department of Bioengineering

Explore what you can expect as an undergrad within the new Department of Bioengineering

Engage in cutting-edge research and coursework to advance professionally

Discover the cutting-edge equipment used within the Bioengineering Department

The College of Engineering is pleased to announce the following new Accelerated Bachelors/Masters Degree (ABMD) programs: One in BioE, three in CEE, two in EE, and two in ME. These 4+1 accelerated programs are designed to provide high achieving undergraduate students an opportunity to earn a bachelors degree and a masters degree within five years.

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Bioengineering - Temple University

Behaviorism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

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One has to be careful with "ism" words. They often have both loose meanings and strict meanings. And sometimes multiple meanings of each type. Behaviorism is one of those "isms". Loosely speaking, behaviorism is an attitude -- a way of conceiving of empirical constraints on psychological state attribution. Strictly speaking, behaviorism is a doctrine -- a way of doing psychological science itself.

Wilfred Sellars (191289), the distinguished philosopher, noted that a person may qualify as a behaviorist, loosely or attitudinally speaking, if they insist on confirming hypotheses about psychological events in terms of behavioral criteria (1963, p. 22). A behaviorist, so understood, is someone who demands behavioral evidence for any psychological hypothesis. For such a person, there is no knowable difference between two states of mind (beliefs, desires, etc.) unless there is a demonstrable difference in the behavior associated with each state. Consider the current belief that is is raining. If there is no difference in my behavior between believing that it is raining and currently thinking that the sun is bright, there is no grounds for attributing the one belief to me rather than the other. The attribution is empirically unconstrained.

Arguably, there is nothing truly exciting about behaviorism loosely understood. It enthrones behavioral evidence, an arguably inescapable premise in not just psychological science but in ordinary discourse about mind and behavior. Just how behavioral evidence should be 'enthroned' (especially in science) may be debated. But enthronement itself is not in question.

Not so behaviorism the doctrine. It has been widely and vigorously debated. This entry is about the doctrine, not the attitude. Behaviorism, the doctrine, has caused considerable excitation among both advocates and critics. In a manner of speaking, it is a doctrine, or family of doctrines, about how to enthrone behavior not just in the science of psychology but in the metaphysics of human and animal behavior.

Behaviorism, the doctrine, is committed in its fullest and most complete sense to the truth of the following three sets of claims.

The three sets of claims are logically distinct. Moreover, taken independently, each helps to form a type of behaviorism. Methodological behaviorism is committed to the truth of (1). Psychological behaviorism is committed to the truth of (2). Analytical behaviorism (also known as philosophical or logical behaviorism) is committed to the truth of the sub-statement in (3) that mental terms or concepts can and should be translated into behavioral concepts.

Other nomenclature is sometimes used to classify behaviorisms. Georges Rey (1997, p. 96), for example, classifies behaviorisms as methodological, analytical, and radical, where radical is Rey's term for what I am classifying as psychological behaviorism. I reserve the term radical for the psychological behaviorism of B. F. Skinner. Skinner employs the expression radical behaviorism to describe his brand of behaviorism or his philosophy of behaviorism (see Skinner 1974, p. 18). In the classification scheme used in this entry, radical behaviorism is a sub-type of psychological behaviorism, primarily, although it combines all three types of behaviorism (methodological, analytical, and psychological).

Methodological behaviorism is a normative theory about the scientific conduct of psychology. It claims that psychology should concern itself with the behavior of organisms (human and nonhuman animals). Psychology should not concern itself with mental states or events or with constructing internal information processing accounts of behavior. According to methodological behaviorism, reference to mental states, such as an animal's beliefs or desires, adds nothing to what psychology can and should understand about the sources of behavior. Mental states are private entities which, given the necessary publicity of science, do not form proper objects of empirical study. Methodological behaviorism is a dominant theme in the writings of John Watson (18781958).

Psychological behaviorism is a research program within psychology. It purports to explain human and animal behavior in terms of external physical stimuli, responses, learning histories, and (for certain types of behavior) reinforcements. Psychological behaviorism is present in the work of Ivan Pavlov (18491936), Edward Thorndike (18741949), as well as Watson. Its fullest and most influential expression is B. F. Skinner's work on schedules of reinforcement.

To illustrate, consider a food-deprived rat in an experimental chamber. If a particular movement, such as pressing a lever when a light is on, is followed by the presentation of food, then the likelihood of the rat's pressing the lever when hungry, again, and the light is on, is increased. Such presentations are reinforcements, such lights are (discriminative) stimuli, such lever pressings are responses, and such trials or associations are learning histories.

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Behaviorism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

chemguide: helping you to understand Chemistry – Main Menu

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Keyword searching I have removed the Google search box because it was giving problems. Follow this link to find out how you can still search Chemguide using keywords. Edexcel Chemistry book Support pages for my Edexcel International GCSE Chemistry book. This will soon be retitled as Edexcel International GCSE Chemistry, Edexcel Certificate in Chemistry. CIE syllabus support Support pages for CIE (Cambridge International) A level students and teachers. Atomic Structure and Bonding Covers basic atomic properties (electronic structures, ionisation energies, electron affinities, atomic and ionic radii, and the atomic hydrogen emission spectrum), bonding (including intermolecular bonding) and structures (ionic, molecular, giant covalent and metallic). Inorganic Chemistry Includes essential ideas about redox reactions, and covers the trends in Period 3 and Groups 1, 2, 4 and 7 of the Periodic Table. Plus: lengthy sections on the chemistry of some important complex ions, and of common transition metals. Extraction and uses of aluminium, copper, iron, titanium and tungsten. Physical Chemistry Covers simple kinetic theory, ideal and real gases, chemical energetics, rates of reaction including catalysis, an introduction to chemical equilibria, redox equilibria, acid-base equilibria (pH, buffer solutions, indicators, etc), solubility products, and phase equilibria (including Raoult's Law and the use of various phase diagrams). Instrumental analysis Explains how you can analyse substances using machines - mass spectrometry, infra-red spectroscopy, NMR, UV-visible absorption spectrometry and chromatography. Basic Organic Chemistry Includes help on bonding, naming and isomerism, and a discussion of organic acids and bases. Properties of organic compounds Covers the physical and chemical properties of compounds on UK A level chemistry syllabuses, and includes a limited amount of biochemistry. Organic Reaction Mechanisms Covers all the mechanisms required by the current UK A level chemistry syllabuses. About this site Includes a contact address if you have found any difficulties with the site. Questions and comments A selection of questions that I have been asked lots of times about Chemguide together with a few general comments. There are also a number of chemistry questions that I have been asked and which I haven't been able to find good answers for! Chemistry Calculations A description of the author's book on calculations at UK A level chemistry standard. Textbook suggestions Suggestions for textbooks and revision guides covering the UK AS and A level chemistry syllabuses, with links to Amazon.co.uk if you want to follow them up. Download syllabuses For UK students and international students using UK exams (e.g. Cambridge International). Download a copy of your current syllabus from your examiners. Links A random collection of links to sites that I have found interesting or useful. You will find it is a fairly quirky collection - that's deliberate.

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chemguide: helping you to understand Chemistry - Main Menu

Unusual symptoms – Neurology – MedHelp

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HI! I was reading all the comments and wanted to advise those who have not had one to have a spinal tap and an eye exam of the optic nerve. I have had all of the symptoms and more and was diagnosed with intracranial hypertension five years ago. I also have lupus and am in the process of being worked up for myathenia gravis.

If you can, have a spinal and brain MRI - I never got a spine one. If you are on dierutics remember that they can make you feel dizzy and tingly as can hypothyrodism and heart problems, and a few other diseases that arn't neuro based. I would advise an echocardiogram as well.

I had lupus for yeears before being diagnosed with the IH and theentire time I had the IH i kept telling them about my muscle burning and fatigue, terrible fatigue after exhertion and by the end of the day unable to even use muscles, tingling and so on and it's not until now that an EMG was done and the MG blood tests. EMG was not normal -s till don't have the blood work back.Lupus can also cause many and mostof the symptoms here but is an easy blood work up.

MS can be very deceptive for years and eyars and years but many ,many things including chronic fatigue and fibromyalgia and IH can cause your symptoms.

I havea friend with severe chronic fatigue and she has all of the symptoms including bowel problems and sleep apnea and orthstatic hypotension (another cause of dizzyness).

These things can be really hard to diagnose.

A spinal tap is good because if you have MS the cells will show up in the fluid and if you have IH you brain pressure will read too high.

Symptoms of IH

Papilledema (have you had your eyes checked for optic nerve damage)

pressure severe headache behind the eyes, vomiting, nausea, dizzyness, ear ringing, whooshing, pins and needles, fatigue, muscle fatigue blurry, double vision, visual disturbances )hallucinations), some of us have more serious neurological defects such as memory loss, confusion, trouble walking and excercising and so on - even breathing. (not everyone has all of the symptoms but everyone has increased pressure and papilledema)

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Unusual symptoms - Neurology - MedHelp

Dizziness/foggy feeling – Neurology – MedHelp

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I don't know if I'm in the right place or not, but if I'm not, please forgive me.

Several months ago, I began to have what I call "spells."It feels like something in my spine that gets weak and then I feel very light headed as though I'm going to pass out.

I've had 5 major spine surgeries - 2 lumbar and 3 cervical, the last being for spinal cord compression at the C3/C4 levels.I've also had a total hip replacement.Because of these chronic conditions, I'm currently a patient in a Pain Management Clinic at Walter Reed Army Medical Center, in Washington, D.C.I'm treated with MS Contin 30 mg, MS Contin 15 mg, 2 percocet at bedtime, 100 mg of elavil before bed.In May of this year, I became very depressed and was given Wellbutrin and Trazadone.These spells started after that.

Most recently, I've had cataract surgery on both my eyes.Upon recovery from the cataract surgery, when my doctor (ophthalmologist) was examining my eyes, he found that my optic nerve is swollen and immediately sent me to other doctors who agreed that it was swollen and told me I need to see a neurologist right away and the swollen optic nerve meant an increased level of pressure in the brain.My initial physician wanted these other folks to determine if I have papilledema or pseudo papilledema.The second physician I saw, as I said above, said that I needed to see a neurologist right away.

I had a brain stem stroke in 1988 and tomorrow, I'm going to see the neurologist who treated me for that.I'm a military dependent and wanted to keep my care at Walter Reed, but for some reason, they've dropped the ball on this and thus I decided to see the physician who treated my stroke simply because of the doctor's sense of urgency.I seem to remember at that time that something was said about my optic nerve, but I cannot remember what.I do remember that I was given cortisone to try to bring my vision back to normal after the stroke.However, I'm sure they have my records archived and can easily find out.It didn't, but it did get normal over a period of time by itself.I had double vision then.When I mentioned this to the second ophthalmologist (the one who told me to see a neurologist), he said no, this is more recent than that - meaning this swelling.I don't know how he could know that.

Anyway, as I said above, the only unusual symptom I've had are my weak spells and I've been told that I get very pale during them.It almost feels as though my blood pressure rises and then suddenly drops.

I would appreciate any comments you may have regarding my condition.

Margaret Roosa

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Dizziness/foggy feeling - Neurology - MedHelp

Anti Aging Medicine, Skin Tightening & Stem Cell treatment …

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We offer a multitude of medical services as part of our preventative medical treatment focused on regaining and maintaining optimal health, vitality and vigor. Improving your metabolic function and optimizing hormones like testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, DHEA and others, can give you a better opportunity for a healthy and vigorous life.

Our goal is for you to be disease resistant, mentally sharp, and physically fit. So called Anti Aging Medicine may not be able to reverse aging, or extend longevity, however our hormone replacement treatments are able to address age related physical, mental and sexual problems and enhance your quality of life.

Our resident specialist, Dr. Lionel Bissoon (DO) has been practicing for over 20 years. Author of the book The Cellulite Cure, Dr. Bissoon is a highly skilled physician with a wide range of medical knowledge. He has received training in multiple fields of medicine and draws upon his various medical field of knowledge to synthesize a comprehensive approach to treating all his patients.

Our highly specialized Physicians will individually tailor a comprehensive program that may include bio-identical hormone replacement therapy. Diet and exercise regimens will be recommended along with a specialized vitamin supplementation programs designed to replenish the body with nutrients typically lacking in the modern diet, and required for optimum health.

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Anti Aging Medicine, Skin Tightening & Stem Cell treatment ...

www.futuremedicine.com

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Nanomedicine – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Nanomedicine is the medical application of nanotechnology.[1] Nanomedicine ranges from the medical applications of nanomaterials, to nanoelectronic biosensors, and even possible future applications of molecular nanotechnology. Current problems for nanomedicine involve understanding the issues related to toxicity and environmental impact of nanoscale materials (materials whose structure is on the scale of nanometers, i.e. billionths of a meter).

Functionalities can be added to nanomaterials by interfacing them with biological molecules or structures. The size of nanomaterials is similar to that of most biological molecules and structures; therefore, nanomaterials can be useful for both in vivo and in vitro biomedical research and applications. Thus far, the integration of nanomaterials with biology has led to the development of diagnostic devices, contrast agents, analytical tools, physical therapy applications, and drug delivery vehicles.

Nanomedicine seeks to deliver a valuable set of research tools and clinically useful devices in the near future.[2][3] The National Nanotechnology Initiative expects new commercial applications in the pharmaceutical industry that may include advanced drug delivery systems, new therapies, and in vivo imaging.[4] Nanomedicine research is receiving funding from the US National Institutes of Health, including the funding in 2005 of a five-year plan to set up four nanomedicine centers.

Nanomedicine is a large industry, with nanomedicine sales reaching $6.8 billion in 2004, and with over 200 companies and 38 products worldwide, a minimum of $3.8 billion in nanotechnology R&D is being invested every year.[5] In April 2006, the journal Nature Materials estimated that 130 nanotech-based drugs and delivery systems were being developed worldwide.[6] As the nanomedicine industry continues to grow, it is expected to have a significant impact on the economy.

Nanotechnology has provided the possibility of delivering drugs to specific cells using nanoparticles.

The overall drug consumption and side-effects may be lowered significantly by depositing the active agent in the morbid region only and in no higher dose than needed. Targeted drug delivery is intended to reduce the side effects of drugs with concomitant decreases in consumption and treatment expenses. Drug delivery focuses on maximizing bioavailability both at specific places in the body and over a period of time. This can potentially be achieved by molecular targeting by nanoengineered devices.[7][8] More than $65 billion are wasted each year due to poor bioavailability.[citation needed] A benefit of using nanoscale for medical technologies is that smaller devices are less invasive and can possibly be implanted inside the body, plus biochemical reaction times are much shorter. These devices are faster and more sensitive than typical drug delivery.[9] The efficacy of drug delivery through nanomedicine is largely based upon: a) efficient encapsulation of the drugs, b) successful delivery of drug to the targeted region of the body, and c) successful release of the drug.[citation needed]

Drug delivery systems, lipid- [10] or polymer-based nanoparticles,[11] can be designed to improve the pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of the drug.[12][13][14] However, the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of nanomedicine is highly variable among different patients.[15] When designed to avoid the body's defence mechanisms,[16] nanoparticles have beneficial properties that can be used to improve drug delivery. Complex drug delivery mechanisms are being developed, including the ability to get drugs through cell membranes and into cell cytoplasm. Triggered response is one way for drug molecules to be used more efficiently. Drugs are placed in the body and only activate on encountering a particular signal. For example, a drug with poor solubility will be replaced by a drug delivery system where both hydrophilic and hydrophobic environments exist, improving the solubility.[17] Drug delivery systems may also be able to prevent tissue damage through regulated drug release; reduce drug clearance rates; or lower the volume of distribution and reduce the effect on non-target tissue. However, the biodistribution of these nanoparticles is still imperfect due to the complex host's reactions to nano- and microsized materials[16] and the difficulty in targeting specific organs in the body. Nevertheless, a lot of work is still ongoing to optimize and better understand the potential and limitations of nanoparticulate systems. While advancement of research proves that targeting and distribution can be augmented by nanoparticles, the dangers of nanotoxicity become an important next step in further understanding of their medical uses.[18]

Nanoparticles can be used in combination therapy for decreasing antibiotic resistance or for their antimicrobial properties.[19][20][21] Nanoparticles might also used to circumvent multidrug resistance (MDR) mechanisms.[22]

Two forms of nanomedicine that have already been tested in mice and are awaiting human trials that will be using gold nanoshells to help diagnose and treat cancer,[23] and using liposomes as vaccine adjuvants and as vehicles for drug transport.[24][25] Similarly, drug detoxification is also another application for nanomedicine which has shown promising results in rats.[26] Advances in Lipid nanotechnology was also instrumental in engineering medical nanodevices and novel drug delivery systems as well as in developing sensing applications.[27] Another example can be found in dendrimers and nanoporous materials. Another example is to use block co-polymers, which form micelles for drug encapsulation.[11]

Polymeric nano-particles are a competing technology to lipidic (based mainly on Phospholipids) nano-particles. There is an additional risk of toxicity associated with polymers not widely studied or understood. The major advantages of polymers is stability, lower cost and predictable characterisation. However, in the patient's body this very stability (slow degradation) is a negative factor. Phospholipids on the other hand are membrane lipids (already present in the body and surrounding each cell), have a GRAS (Generally Recognised As Safe) status from FDA and are derived from natural sources without any complex chemistry involved. They are not metabolised but rather absorbed by the body and the degradation products are themselves nutrients (fats or micronutrients).

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Nanomedicine - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

IGERT Nanomedicine at Northeastern University

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STUDENT SPOTLIGHT

IGERT HIGHLIGHT

NU IGERT Nanomedicine Program on YouTube!

Take a tour with three former IGERT trainees, Brian Plouffe, Tatyana Chernenko and Yogesh Patel, to hear about some of the outstanding research that is done in the IGERT Nanomedicine program at Northeastern.

MISSION

IGERT Nanomedicine Science and Technology is a new integrated doctoral education program in the emerging field of Nanomedicine, created with support from the National Cancer Institute and the National Science Foundation. The program aims to educate the next generation of scientists and technologists with the requisite skill sets to address scientific and engineering challenges, with the necessary business, ethical and global perspectives that will be needed in the rapidly emerging area of applying nanotechnology to human health.

The program began at Northeastern University in 2005 with an NSF IGERT grant funded through the National Cancer Institute. The success of the program has since then led to an NSF funded IGERT renewal grant for the period 2010-2015 with new partners, Tuskegee University, The University of Puerto Rico Mayaguez and collaborators at hospitals affiliated with Harvard Medical School.

The program combines the interdisciplinary expertise of world-renowned faculty members in 11 departments at 3 Universities, collaborating with researchers at teaching hospitals and industry. Students enrolled in a Ph.D. program in Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Chemical Engineering, Mechanical/Industrial Engineering, Electrical/Computer Engineering, or Pharmaceutical Sciences (Northeastern University), Materials Science and Engineering or Integrative Biosciences (Tuskegee University), Applied Chemistry or Chemical Engineering (UPRM) may apply to the IGERT interdisciplinary program. The IGERT fellow will graduate with a Ph.D. degree in their core subject with specialization in Nanomedicine Science and Technology.

Download the IGERT Nanomedicine e-book summarizing the achievements of the Northeastern University IGERT Nanomedicine program

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IGERT Nanomedicine at Northeastern University

Nanotechnology in Medicine – Nanomedicine

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The use of nanotechnology in medicine offers some exciting possibilities. Some techniques are only imagined, while others are at various stages of testing, or actually being used today.

Nanotechnology in medicine involves applications of nanoparticles currently under development, as well as longer range research that involves the use of manufactured nano-robots to make repairs at the cellular level (sometimes referred to as nanomedicine).

Whatever you call it, the use of nanotechnology in the field of medicine could revolutionize the way we detect and treat damage to the human body and disease in the future, and many techniques only imagined a few years ago are making remarkable progress towards becoming realities.

One application of nanotechnology in medicine currently being developed involves employing nanoparticles to deliver drugs, heat, light or other substances to specific types of cells (such as cancer cells). Particles are engineered so that they are attracted to diseased cells, which allowsdirect treatment of those cells. This technique reduces damage to healthy cells in the body and allows for earlier detection of disease.

For example, nanoparticles that deliver chemotherapy drugs directly to cancer cells are under development. Tests are in progress for targeted delivery of chemotherapy drugs and their final approval for their use with cancer patients is pending. One company, CytImmune has published the results of a Phase 1 Clinical Trial of their first targeted chemotherapy drug and another company, BIND Biosciences, has published preliminary results of a Phase 1 Clinical Trial for their first targeted chemotherapy drug and is proceeding with a Phase 2 Clinical Trial.

Researchers at the University of Illinois have demonstated that gelatin nanoparticles can be used to deliver drugs to damaged brain tissue.

Researchers at MIT using nanoparticles to deliver vaccine.The nanoparticles protect the vaccine, allowing the vaccine time to trigger a stronger immune response.

Reserchers are developing a method to release insulin that uses a sponge-like matrix that contains insulin as well as nanocapsules containing an enzyme. When the glucose level rises the nanocapsules release hydrogen ions, which bind to the fibers making up the matrix. The hydrogen ions make the fibers positively charged, repelling each other and creating openings in the matrix through which insulin is released.

Researchers are developing a nanoparticle that can be taken orally and pass through the lining of the intestines into the bloodsteam. This should allow drugs that must now be delivered with a shot to be taken in pill form.

Researchers are also developing a nanoparticle to defeat viruses. The nanoparticle does not actually destroy viruses molecules, but delivers an enzyme that prevents the reproduction of viruses molecules in the patients bloodstream.

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Nanotechnology in Medicine - Nanomedicine

Longevity | Medical Aesthetics

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Physician Care

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All of our procedures are done by Dr. Biro or under his direct supervision, to ensure the highest standards are consistently maintained.

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Human Genetics

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It has been a long time since Human Genetics got introduced to mankind. One can definitely think of it as a great achievement in the entire history of humans. It is the alteration of genes in a human being for making him or her resistant to different kind of diseases that can prove deadly, because Read more

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Major area for human genetic engineering debate revolves around the ethics involved in testing of genetics. Other areas for debate include selective eugenics as well as genetic discrimination. Apart from the above debates, the scientists have now been found busy on making debates on some other frightening prospects of human genetic engineering. Human genetic engineering Read more

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Human genetics research is a revolutionary change in the field of medical science. It has made several advances in this field. It entered this field many years ago when Hippocrates discovered nature laws can easily describe the body workings. This revolution identified that contaminated water is a primary reason that leads to a disease like Read more

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Many human genetic engineering pros and cons are there that have stayed the same since its introduction to humanity. When the humans started harnessing the atomic powers, then just few years later they also start recognizing the effects of human genetic engineering on mankind. Many scientists have a belief that gene therapy can be a Read more

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A primary debate topic among the people from western civilization is the effects of human cloning and genetic engineering. This topic has given place to a lot of controversies in that civilization. It is an asexual reproduction using genetic engineering. There is a huge relation between human cloning and genetic engineering. In fact, cloning cannot Read more

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Human Genetics

Gene therapy – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Gene therapy is the therapeutic delivery of nucleic acid polymers into a patient's cells as a drug to treat disease. The polymers are either expressed as proteins, interfere with protein expression, or possibly correct genetic mutations.

The most common form uses DNA that encodes a functional, therapeutic gene to replace a mutated gene. The polymer molecule is packaged within a "vector", which carries the molecule inside cells.

Gene therapy was conceptualized in 1972, by authors who urged caution before commencing human gene therapy studies. The first gene therapy experiment approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) occurred in 1990, when Ashanti DeSilva was treated for ADA-SCID.[1] By January 2014, some 2,000 clinical trials had been conducted or approved.[2]

Early clinical failures led to dismissals of gene therapy. Clinical successes since 2006 regained researchers' attention, although as of 2014, it was still largely an experimental technique.[3] These include treatment of retinal disease Leber's congenital amaurosis,[4][5][6][7]X-linked SCID,[8] ADA-SCID,[9][10]adrenoleukodystrophy,[11]chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL),[12]acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL),[13]multiple myeloma,[14]haemophilia[10] and Parkinson's disease.[15] Between 2013 and April 2014, US companies invested over $600 million in the field.[16]

The first commercial gene therapy, Gendicine, was approved in China in 2003 for the treatment of certain cancers.[17] In 2012 Glybera, a treatment for a rare inherited disorder, became the treatment to be approved for clinical use in either Europe or the United States after its endorsement by the European Commission.[3][18]

Following early advances in genetic engineering of bacteria, cells and small animals, scientists started considering how to apply it to medicine. Two main approaches were considered replacing or disrupting defective genes.[19] Scientists focused on diseases caused by single-gene defects, such as cystic fibrosis, haemophilia, muscular dystrophy, thalassemia and sickle cell anemia. Glybera treats one such disease, caused by a defect in lipoprotein lipase.[18]

DNA must be administered, reach the damaged cells, enter the cell and express/disrupt a protein.[20] Multiple delivery techniques have been explored. The initial approach incorporated DNA into an engineered virus to deliver the DNA into a chromosome.[21][22]Naked DNA approaches have also been explored, especially in the context of vaccine development.[23]

Generally, efforts focused on administering a gene that causes a needed protein to be expressed. More recently, increased understanding of nuclease function has led to more direct DNA editing, using techniques such as zinc finger nucleases and CRISPR. The vector incorporates genes into chromosomes. The expressed nucleases then "edit" the chromosome. As of 2014 these approaches involve removing cells from patients, editing a chromosome and returning the transformed cells to patients.[24]

Other technologies employ antisense, small interfering RNA and other DNA. To the extent that these technologies do not alter DNA, but instead directly interact with molecules such as RNA, they are not considered "gene therapy" per se.[citation needed]

Gene therapy may be classified into two types:

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Gene therapy - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Human Genetic Engineering : History

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Human Genetic Engineering : History 4.90/5 (98.07%) 83 votes

Human Genetic Engineering History goes back to the 1919 when an engineer from Hungary gave a term biotechnology to products developed by using raw materials. The engineer made use of this term in its best possible sense. Civilizations in the ancient times discovered that a lot of products can be made by using micro-organisms.

However, people that time have no idea about there are active agents in the microbes. Back in 7000 B.C. some existing tribes also made precious discoveries about how to make beer using yeast. TheHuman Genetic Engineering History continues going ahead since those times. There is a lot of difference between Biotechnology and genetic engineering.

In one hand, gene manipulation is the result of equating biotechnology. However, many aspects are there that define biotechnology. On the other hand, genetic engineering came to perspective, because of its specific technique for manipulating genes.

The term Human Genetic Engineering made it presence felt in 1970. This is the time when several methods were devised with the help of molecular biologists for identifying or for isolating clone genes. Methods were also devised for manipulating the genes to other species or for mutating them in humans.

Restrictive enzymes got discovered during this research, and many have considered as the main success in the Human Genetic Engineering History. This enzyme can make organisms to isolate the DNA, and then it gets mixed with a vector preparation. Hybrid molecules can easily be generated with the sticky ends virtue. This molecule contains interest genes that can later get inserted into the vector.

Ethical concerns involved in Human Genetics

Many scientists knew that a lot of risk is there during the transfer of genes from one person to the other. Human Genetic Engineering History contains all the factors responsible for the invention of genetic engineering as a part of advance sciences. They found that their labs have been poised when they started experimenting clone genes.

Scientists also organized several meetings in order to discuss the risks involved in the transformation of genes. All scientists were given a chance to keep their points of view on the above subject. They made discussion on all the dangers that can potentially take place during their research. However, the meeting went unprecedented.

In this meeting, they made necessary or relevant decisions regarding the amount of time that might be needed for sorting out the solution. Certain guidelines came to existence for the recombinant organism biological and physical isolation. This should be done for ensuring that the organisms do not get mixed with the environment. Human Genetic Engineering History involves profound or numerous consequences.

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Human Genetic Engineering : History

Pros and Cons of Genetic Engineering in Humans – Part 1

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The human body is not perfect. Some are created with inherent faults and others break down before their time. Science has the potential to make good these problems by altering how humans are made. This is genetic engineering, and this article looks at the pros and cons of the technology in humans

This is part one of a two-part series. Here I will look at a definition of genetic engineering and the pros of human genetic engineering. In part two the cons and the ethics of human genetic engineering are discussed.

Before weighing up the pros and cons of genetic engineering in humans, it's worth taking the time to understand just what is meant by the idea. Simply put, it's a way of manipulating our genes in such a way as to make our bodies better. This alteration of a genome could take place in the sperm and egg cells. This is known as germline gene therapy and would alter the traits that a child is born with. The changes would be inheritable and passed down through the generations. It is currently illegal in many countries.

The other way to change our genome is to swap our bad genes for good ones - in cells other than the sex cells. This is known as somatic cell gene therapy. This is where a functioning gene could be fired into our bodies on a viral vector to carry out the functions that a faulty gene is unable to. This technology is permitted, though it has enjoyed a very limited success rate so far (largely because it is technically very difficult). Nonetheless, it still holds out a great deal of promise.

There are many potential advantages to being able to alter the cells in our bodies genetically.

To make disease a thing of the past

Most people on the planet die of disease or have family members that do. Very few of us will just pop up to bed one night and gently close our eyes for the last time. Our genomes are not as robust as we would like them to be and genetic mutations either directly cause a disease such as Cystic fibrosis, or they contribute to it greatly i.e. Alzheimer's. Or in the case of some conditions such as the heart disease Cardiomyopathy, genetic mutations can make our bodies more susceptible to attack from viruses or our own immune system. If the full benefits of gene therapy are ever realised we can replace the dud genes with correctly functioning copies.

To extend life spans

Having enjoyed life, most of us want to cling on to it for as long as possible. The genetic engineering of humans has the potential to greatly increase our life spans. Some estimates reckon that 100-150 years could be the norm. Of course gene therapy for a fatal condition will increase the lifespan of the patient but we're also talking about genetic modifications of healthy people to give them a longer life. Once we fully understand the genetics of ageing it may be possible to slow down or reverse some of the cellular mechanisms that lead to our decline - for example by preventing telomeres at the ends of chromosomes from shortening. Telomere shortening is known to contribute to cell senescence.

Better pharmaceuticals

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Pros and Cons of Genetic Engineering in Humans - Part 1

Welcome to NASA Quest!

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NASA TV In addition to real-time coverage of agency activitites, watch educational programming. + Watch Now + Watch NASA TV NASA Quest Challenges are FREE Web-based, interactive explorations designed to engage students in authentic scientific and engineering processes. The solutions relate to issues encountered daily by NASA personnel. + Read More Tracking a Solar Storm Challenge: Join the Tracking a Solar Storm Challenge and guide students as they learn about our suns anatomy, the space weather it generates, and why studying the sun is important. Educators are invited to register now. Challenge begins February 2013. + Read More PRODUCTS NASA Quest offers a wide range of FREE online tools and resources for teachers, students, parents and others including Web and print lesson plans, educator guides and workbooks: LCROSS Lunar CRater Observation and Sensing Satellite website. Be a part of in this exciting mission! +Go! Smart Skies (Grades 5-9) Use hands-on math to avoid air traffic conflicts. + Go! Astro-Venture (Grades 5-8) Search for and design a habitable planet. New Modules + Go!

Solar System Math (Grades 5-8) Interactive software and hands-on pre-algebra math activities + Go!

Virtual Field Trip (All Grades) Multimedia application for exploration of areas on Earth identified as analog sites to regions on Mars + Go!

SPACEWARD BOUND Home

Students and teachers participate in exploration of scientifically interesting, remote and extreme environments on Earth as analogs for human exploration of the Moon and Mars

Namibia: Follow the adventures of Liza & the Boys

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Welcome to NASA Quest!

Gene Therapy and Children – KidsHealth

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Gene therapy carries the promise of cures for many diseases and for types of medical treatment that didn't seem possible until recently. With its potential to eliminate and prevent hereditary diseases such as cystic fibrosis and hemophilia and its use as a possible cure for heart disease, AIDS, and cancer, gene therapy is a potential medical miracle-worker.

But what about gene therapy for children? There's a fair amount of risk involved, so thus far only seriously ill kids or those with illnesses that can't be cured by standard medical treatments have been involved in clinical trials using gene therapy.

As those studies continue, gene therapy may soon offer hope for children with serious illnesses that don't respond to conventional therapies.

Our genes help make us unique. Inherited from our parents, they go far in determining our physical traits like eye color and the color and texture of our hair. They also determine things like whether babies will be male or female, the amount of oxygen blood can carry, and the likelihood of getting certain diseases.

Genes are composed of strands of a molecule called DNA and are located in single file within the chromosomes. The genetic message is encoded by the building blocks of the DNA, which are called nucleotides. Approximately 3 billion pairs of nucleotides are in the chromosomes of a human cell, and each person's genetic makeup has a unique sequence of nucleotides. This is mainly what makes us different from one another.

Scientists believe that every human has about 25,000 genes per cell. A mutation, or change, in any one of these genes can result in a disease, physical disability, or shortened life span. These mutations can be passed from one generation to another, inherited just like a mother's curly hair or a father's brown eyes. Mutations also can occur spontaneously in some cases, without having been passed on by a parent. With gene therapy, the treatment or elimination of inherited diseases or physical conditions due to these mutations could become a reality.

Gene therapy involves the manipulation of genes to fight or prevent diseases. Put simply, it introduces a "good" gene into a person who has a disease caused by a "bad" gene.

The two forms of gene therapy are:

Currently, gene therapy is done only through clinical trials, which often take years to complete. After new drugs or procedures are tested in laboratories, clinical trials are conducted with human patients under strictly controlled circumstances. Such trials usually last 2 to 4 years and go through several phases of research. In the United States, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) must then approve the new therapy for the marketplace, which can take another 2 years.

The most active research being done in gene therapy for kids has been for genetic disorders (like cystic fibrosis). Other gene therapy trials involve children with severe immunodeficiencies, such as adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency (a rare genetic disease that makes kids prone to serious infection), sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, hemophilia, and those with familial hypercholesterolemia (extremely high levels of serum cholesterol).

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Gene Therapy and Children - KidsHealth

Rice University Department of Bioengineering

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The Rice University Department of Bioengineering is a top-tier teaching and research institution with a faculty committed to excellence in education, interdisciplinary, basic and translational research. Our undergraduate program is ranked fifth and our graduate program is ranked ninthin the nation by U.S. News & World Report.

Key to our success as an international leader in bioengineering is capitalizing on Rice's location, which promotes the development of long-term strategic partnerships with experts in industry and academic and government institutions. Rice is situated in the midst of one of the largest, most diverse cities in the nation. Our neighbors include the Texas Medical Center (TMC) and its member institutions. The TMC,which is the largest medical center in the world,provides unlimited opportunity to expand our global reach and build unparalleled teaching and research programs that solve a broad spectrum of complex problems in science and medicine.

Our faculty members have diverse research interests focused on establishing engineering principles and developing cutting-edge technologies to solve a host of life-science problems in:

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Rice University Department of Bioengineering

The Biology Project: Biochemistry

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Molecular Visualization Activities

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Chemistry Review the basics of chemistry you'll need to know to study biology.

Large Molecules Learn about structures and properties of sugars, lipids, amino acids, and nucleotides, as well as macromolecules including proteins, nucleic acids and polysaccharides.

Chemistry of Amino Acids learn the structure and chemistry of the amino acids that are found within proteins.

Acids & Bases Learn about the solvent properties of water, pH, pKa and buffering capacity.

Clinical Correlates of pH Levels Learn how metabolic acidosis or alkalosis can arise and how these conditions shift the bicarbonate equilibrium. The body's compensatory mechanisms and treatment options are also discussed.

B12/Folate Learn which biological reactions require either B12 or folate (or both); what the consequences of a deficiency in either vitamin are, and the important step in which B12 and folate metabolism overlap.

Metabolism Develop a basic understanding of some of the fundamental concepts of metabolism

Carbohydrate Metabolism Regulation Learn about the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism by insulin, glucagon and epinephrine, mainly in liver and muscle.

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The Biology Project: Biochemistry

What is pharmacogenomics? – Genetics Home Reference

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Pharmacogenomics is the study of how genes affect a persons response to drugs. This relatively new field combines pharmacology (the science of drugs) and genomics (the study of genes and their functions) to develop effective, safe medications and doses that will be tailored to a persons genetic makeup.

Many drugs that are currently available are one size fits all, but they dont work the same way for everyone. It can be difficult to predict who will benefit from a medication, who will not respond at all, and who will experience negative side effects (called adverse drug reactions). Adverse drug reactions are a significant cause of hospitalizations and deaths in the United States. With the knowledge gained from the Human Genome Project, researchers are learning how inherited differences in genes affect the bodys response to medications. These genetic differences will be used to predict whether a medication will be effective for a particular person and to help prevent adverse drug reactions.

The field of pharmacogenomics is still in its infancy. Its use is currently quite limited, but new approaches are under study in clinical trials. In the future, pharmacogenomics will allow the development of tailored drugs to treat a wide range of health problems, including cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer disease, cancer, HIV/AIDS, and asthma.

The National Institute of General Medical Sciences offers a list of Frequently Asked Questions about Pharmacogenomics.

A list of Frequently Asked Questions about Pharmacogenomics is also offered by the National Human Genome Research Institute.

Additional information about pharmacogenetics is available from the Centre for Genetics Education as well as Genes In Life.

The Smithsonian National Museum of Natural Historys exhibit Genome: Unlocking Lifes Code discusses the utility of pharmacogenomics.

The Genetic Science Learning Center at the University of Utah offers an interactive introduction to pharmacogenomics. Another interactive tutorial is available from the PHG Foundation.

The American Medical Association explains what pharmacogenomics is and provides a list of practical applications.

The National Genetics and Genomics Education Centre of the National Health Service (UK) provides information about predicting the effects of drugs based on a persons genes.

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What is pharmacogenomics? - Genetics Home Reference