The Jews occupied a unique geographic position in the Middle East: they lived in a strategic place, the transit point between three continents, a coveted place for all the large imperial powers of the time. They had a unique philosophy: the Jews worshiped one and only one God, declared this God to be invisible and, on top of it, proclaimed that there were no other gods. This only brought on them the ire of all the imperial powers of the time, like the Greeks and the Romans, who worshiped a variety of multiple idols. And they had a unique history: Remember that we were slaves in Egypt, parents told to their children during the Passover meal, from time immemorial. This is central to the Jewish ethos. What other people would include in their primordial mythos that they descended from slaves? This did not sit well with the great powers of that era, for which slavery was a very profitable endeavor, vital for their economy. All this unique geographic position, unique philosophy, and unique history put the Jews at odds with their surroundings. The result was that they lost their territorial center through frequent wars and became dispersed. Most historians set the origin of this dispersion (the Jewish Diaspora) in the years 66-73 CE, during the Jewish revolt against the Roman Empire, that ended with the destruction of Jerusalem. However, the true catastrophic event for the Jewish people was their last revolt against the Roman Empire, in years 132-136 CE, known as the Bar Kokhba Revolt, for the name of their leader. In this last rebellion, 985 villages in Judea were destroyed and around 580,000 Jews perished. [1]
Judea under Bar Kochba rule (132-136 CE). (courtesy of the author)
After the Jewish rebellion in Judea was crushed, the Romans barred the remaining Jews from living in Jerusalem, and merged the Roman provinces of Syria and Judea, under one unified province, renamed Syria Palaestina. The origin of the name Palaestina is unclear: some identify it with an ancient people that used to live in times past in the coastal area, the Philistines. Having just eliminated the Jews of Judea physically, it seems that the Romans decided to eliminate also the name Judea from the maps. Since then, the name Palestine stuck in all the Western literature as the land (or former land) of the Jews.
After the destruction of Judea in the 2nd century CE, the center of Jewish life in Palestine moved from the mountainous region of Judea to the Galilee, what is now northern Israel. In the course of several centuries the Jews in Galilee created two monumental works that shaped for centuries the life of the Jews in the Diaspora: the Jerusalem Talmud and the Aleppo Codex.
The Jerusalem Talmud was originally written by rabbinic sages in Tiberias, a town by the Sea of Galilee, in the 4th century (a century later, a second version of the Talmud, known as the Babylonian Talmud, was written by the Jewish center in Babylon, today Iraq). The importance of the Talmud cannot be understated: with the Jewish State gone and Jews living under foreign occupation in Palestine, or in foreign lands in the diaspora, the rabbinic sages pondered the question of how to preserve Jewish life in such conditions. The answer was the Talmud: an encyclopedic compilation of myriads of examples and teachings covering all the subjects of Jewish life, from Jewish customs, to religious and civil affairs. The Talmud became for centuries the main source of Jewish survival in the Diaspora: Jews in the Diaspora followed the Talmud for guidance in everything related to earthly and spiritual affairs.
The following figure shows a page of the Jerusalem Talmud found in the geniza of the Ben Ezrah synagogue in Fustat, Egypt. (Remember the name Fustat: we will find it again when talking about the Aleppo Codex).
A page of the Jerusalem Talmud, found in the geniza (storage room) of Ben Ezra Synagogue in Fustat, Egypt. (source: https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yerushalmi_Talmud.jpg )
The Aleppo Codex a special text of the Bible was written in Tiberias around 930 CE. It became the most authoritative version of the Hebrew Bible, followed by the Jews in the Diaspora.
Written Hebrew only uses the consonants: vowels are not printed. If you check the archeological remains of ancient Hebrew texts written two thousand years ago in the Land of Israel, you will not find vowels in these texts. No one needed them, because Jews lived then in Israel, Hebrew was quite natural to them, and it was clear to all how to read and pronounce the words in the sacred texts, even if no vowels were indicated in them. If you check the Sacred Scrolls of the Bible today in any synagogue over the world, there are no vowels either written in the text. So how come, Jews so far apart in time and space, today in New York, in Buenos Aires, in London, in Moscow and in Jerusalem, preserved for 2,000 years the phonetics of the Hebrew language and manage to read and pronounce the words in the Bible with such uniformity during the long centuries of dispersion in the Diaspora?
The answer can be found in Tiberias, the city at the shores of the Sea of Galilea. The Jewish sages in Tiberias came to the help of their brethren in the Diaspora: they meticulously added the vowels to all the words in a copy of the Bible, and not only vowels but also diacritical marks so people would know how to pronounce each word with the correct stressed syllable, and thus, the Aleppo Codex was born.
The following two figures show the difference between a standard Bible text you can find today in a synagogue and the biblical text as it appears in the Aleppo Codex:
text in a standard scroll of the Bible. (courtesy of the author)
Notice in the figure above that, for example, the last word in the text (fourth row, to the right) is the word Israel in Hebrew. Notice the absence of vowels, or any marks above and below the word Israel or any other word in the text.
To the right is shown a paragraph of the Aleppo Codex. To the left, the word Israel that appears in the paragraph is reproduced and magnified. (courtesy of the author)
Notice that, in the Aleppo Codex text, the vowels in the word Israel were added below the letters. In addition to the vowels, the Aleppo Codex includes diacritical marks for the correct pronunciation of the words.
The Aleppo Codex, due to circumstances described below, was not kept in Tiberias for long. It circulated between the Jewish communities in the Middle East. The following figure shows this history of its itinerary [2[).
The travel history of the Aleppo Codex (early dates are approximate) (map from: https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-topics/hebrew-bible/travelogue-of-the-aleppo-codex/, arrows and text to the right added by the author)
The movement from Tiberias to Jerusalem in year 1030, may be related to a major earthquake along the Jordan Valley, in 1033, which might have damaged Tiberias. The movement from Jerusalem to Egypt was related to historic events in the region: The book had been caught by the Christian Crusaders, during their military expeditions in 1095-1291, and was redeemed by the Jewish community in Egypt by paying a ransom. Fustat, the city in Egypt where the Aleppo Codex was moved to after it was retrieved from the Crusaders, had an important Jewish community: The Jewish philosopher and physician Maimonides (1138-1204) lived in Fustat.
The book was later moved from Fustat to Aleppo, in Syria, in year 1375. The movement of the Aleppo Codex from Fustat to Aleppo, may be related to the deterioration of the conditions of Jews (and Christians Copts) in Egypt during the rule of the Mamelukes. It is known that severe persecution and attacks against non-Muslims happened in 1354, close to the date when the Aleppo Codex was moved out of Egypt.
The Jewish community in Aleppo had the book for almost 600 years (hence, its name Aleppo Codex), until the pogrom in 1947, when the synagogue where it was kept was burnt. During the exodus of the Jews from Syria, following the pogroms in Aleppo (1947) and Damascus (1949), the book disappeared and, somehow, found its way to the recently born state of Israel, and it is now kept in the Israel Museum, Jerusalem.
The Aleppo Codex, presently kept in the Israel Museum, Jerusalem (courtesy of the Israel Museum, Jerusalem)
References
[1] These numerical figures were provided by the Roman historian Cassius Dio (born 150, died 235 CE), in his History of Rome, 69.14.1-2, cited in:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt
[2] Travelogue of the Aleppo Codex
Lexicon:
Geniza: storage area in a Jewish synagogue designated for the storage of worn-out Hebrew-language books and papers on religious topics, prior to proper cemetery burial.
The Cairo Geniza is a collection of some 400,000 Jewish manuscript fragments that were kept in the geniza of the Ben Ezra Synagogue in Fustat, Egypt. These manuscripts span the entire period of Middle-Eastern, North African, and Spanish Jewish history between the 6th and 19th centuries CE, and comprise the largest and most diverse collection of medieval manuscripts in the world.
The above is an excerpt of a new chapter (Lesson 4) in my book The root of the Arab-Israeli conflict and the path to peace (February 2024 edition). The edition has also two chapters dedicated to the present Hamas-Israel war (Lessons 8 and 9). The book can be downloaded for free at:
(The book is also available in a Spanish edition, and it is also available at Amazon)
Follow this link:
- Honoring EFRAT: An organization that provides support to parents - The Jerusalem Post - February 18th, 2024 [February 18th, 2024]
- For the Yehudim There Was Light - COLlive - February 18th, 2024 [February 18th, 2024]
- Book Review: Subculture Vulture, by Moshe Kasher - The New York Times - January 29th, 2024 [January 29th, 2024]
- Israel-Hamas War: Yearning for children lost before their time - The Jerusalem Post - January 29th, 2024 [January 29th, 2024]
- Roots, Midrash and Tu B'Shvat | Gershon Hepner | The Blogs - The Times of Israel - January 29th, 2024 [January 29th, 2024]
- Emotional moments as awards are given out to the talmidim of Talmud Torah Kollel Shomrei Hachomos Rockland Daily - Rockland Daily - January 23rd, 2024 [January 23rd, 2024]
- The People's Talmud Presents: RANDOM Brain Teasers - The Jewish Press - JewishPress.com - January 23rd, 2024 [January 23rd, 2024]
- Why the Jewish Word for Heretic Is Based on Epicurus - Greek Reporter - January 23rd, 2024 [January 23rd, 2024]
- War, Talmud, and agriculture - opinion - The Jerusalem Post - December 28th, 2023 [December 28th, 2023]
- Claims on 'Canaan' by Africans and Arabs in the Talmud - The Times of Israel - December 28th, 2023 [December 28th, 2023]
- Berakhot (tractate) - Wikipedia - January 4th, 2023 [January 4th, 2023]
- Talmud and Midrash | Definition, Books, Examples, & Facts - January 4th, 2023 [January 4th, 2023]
- The William Davidson Talmud The William Davidson Talmud - December 26th, 2022 [December 26th, 2022]
- Switching My Kids to This Jewish Day School from Public School Was a Godsend and Came Just in Time - Kveller.com - December 23rd, 2022 [December 23rd, 2022]
- Humans of Heller High: What nine teens learned on an immersive program in Israel - JTA News - Jewish Telegraphic Agency - December 16th, 2022 [December 16th, 2022]
- Jesus in the Talmud - Wikipedia - November 23rd, 2022 [November 23rd, 2022]
- The Oral Law -Talmud & Mishna - Jewish Virtual Library - October 23rd, 2022 [October 23rd, 2022]
- Creating Humanity and Midrash in the Divine Image - Jewish Exponent - October 19th, 2022 [October 19th, 2022]
- Help Jewish Federation do good that goes everywhere - Jewish Community Voice - October 19th, 2022 [October 19th, 2022]
- On the Turkish-Syrian border, a citys last Jews watch the ending of an epoch - JTA News - Jewish Telegraphic Agency - October 19th, 2022 [October 19th, 2022]
- Cate Blanchett gives what might be her best performance ever in TR - Cult MTL - October 19th, 2022 [October 19th, 2022]
- Revisiting The Campus Archives - New Voices - October 19th, 2022 [October 19th, 2022]
- Opinion | Wood column: Reliever Larry Sherry went from obscurity to fame in a moment - The Daily Advance - October 19th, 2022 [October 19th, 2022]
- The Moon Provides an All-Star Example of Sincere Repentance - Torah.org - October 19th, 2022 [October 19th, 2022]
- Was the fruit of the Tree of Life from which Adam and Eve ate really an apple? J-Wire - J-Wire Jewish Australian News Service - October 19th, 2022 [October 19th, 2022]
- Major raids into Al-Aqsa and the Occupation prevents worshipers from entering - Middle East Monitor - October 17th, 2022 [October 17th, 2022]
- Funny Girl Star Tovah Feldshuh on Sharing the Stage With Lea Michele and What the Talmud Says About Gossip - Variety - October 15th, 2022 [October 15th, 2022]
- No-bake 'millionaire' bars are a rich treat for a sweet Simchat Torah J. - The Jewish News of Northern California - October 15th, 2022 [October 15th, 2022]
- Jewish donations to support abortion rights groups are booming J. - The Jewish News of Northern California - October 15th, 2022 [October 15th, 2022]
- Superminis Remix Of The Phantom Of The Operas Title Song is Out Now - Yahoo Entertainment - October 15th, 2022 [October 15th, 2022]
- Joey Weisenberg coming to S.F. to help build 'singing communities' J. - The Jewish News of Northern California - October 15th, 2022 [October 15th, 2022]
- Islamic Tahrif Began With The Samaritans OpEd - Eurasia Review - October 13th, 2022 [October 13th, 2022]
- Rosh Hashanah threats show that Jewish students are being targeted - JNS.org - October 13th, 2022 [October 13th, 2022]
- Freedom to cycle The female Afghan refugees rediscovering life on the bike in Italy - CyclingWeekly - October 13th, 2022 [October 13th, 2022]
- Rabbi: Lets recommit to one another and get the polio vaccine | Opinion - NJ.com - October 13th, 2022 [October 13th, 2022]
- How and when did the first synagogues appear in Ukraine, and why is this an important aspect of Ukrainian history (Pt. 1) - UJE - Ukrainian Jewish... - October 13th, 2022 [October 13th, 2022]
- The Facts about Pope John Paul I Novus Ordo Watch - October 11th, 2022 [October 11th, 2022]
- My ApologiesKanye West Isn't What I Told You - The Epoch Times - October 11th, 2022 [October 11th, 2022]
- A new cookbook highlights women of the Talmud - Press Herald - October 8th, 2022 [October 8th, 2022]
- The greatest contemporary teacher of Judaism is a van driver in Israel - Religion News Service - October 8th, 2022 [October 8th, 2022]
- Letter to the Editor: Rabbis do take political stands when morality, ethics and national threats are involved - Summit Daily - October 8th, 2022 [October 8th, 2022]
- Taking inspiration from the Talmud to feed the needy - Australian Jewish News - September 11th, 2022 [September 11th, 2022]
- Kenden Alfond Finds Culinary Inspiration from the Talmud - aish.com - Aish.com - September 11th, 2022 [September 11th, 2022]
- Missouri bagel shop goes viral for effort to feed the needy J. - The Jewish News of Northern California - September 11th, 2022 [September 11th, 2022]
- What Do Some of YU's Torah Leaders Think of the Five Torot? - The Commentator - The Commentator - September 11th, 2022 [September 11th, 2022]
- Gorbachev was different he had a heart - The Jewish Standard - September 11th, 2022 [September 11th, 2022]
- Love is a Skeleton Key - aish.com - Aish.com - September 11th, 2022 [September 11th, 2022]
- 50 Best Wine Quotes That Will Have You Breaking Out a Bottle Stat! - Parade Magazine - September 11th, 2022 [September 11th, 2022]
- We have faced Amaleks like Putin forever, but with morality we can prevail J. - The Jewish News of Northern California - September 11th, 2022 [September 11th, 2022]
- Being On The Team - The Jewish Press - JewishPress.com - September 11th, 2022 [September 11th, 2022]
- Twelve more Slovaks awarded Righteous Among the Nations - The Slovak Spectator - September 11th, 2022 [September 11th, 2022]
- West Temples Rabbi Lader to retire in June 2023 - Cleveland Jewish News - September 11th, 2022 [September 11th, 2022]
- A Texas rabbi is fighting Jewish stereotypes on Chinas TikTok - The Times of Israel - August 29th, 2022 [August 29th, 2022]
- I'm a Gamblin' Man: The 17th Century Rabbi who Battled Addiction - aish.com - Aish.com - August 29th, 2022 [August 29th, 2022]
- Q & A: The Mantle Of Leadership (Part II) - The Jewish Press - JewishPress.com - August 29th, 2022 [August 29th, 2022]
- Anger, Procrastination, and Elul - The Jewish Press - JewishPress.com - August 29th, 2022 [August 29th, 2022]
- What Is the Talmud? - Christianity.com - August 25th, 2022 [August 25th, 2022]
- The Choice: A Novel of Love, Faith, and the Talmud - reviewed by Rabbi Jeffrey Cohen J-Wire - J-Wire Jewish Australian News Service - August 25th, 2022 [August 25th, 2022]
- What If It Were 'Zalman'? - The Jewish Press - JewishPress.com - August 25th, 2022 [August 25th, 2022]
- Jewish law symposium to tackle the ethics of cancel culture and redemption - The Jewish Standard - August 25th, 2022 [August 25th, 2022]
- What I'm Reading (Aug. 25) | American Council on Science and Health - American Council on Science and Health - August 25th, 2022 [August 25th, 2022]
- Apples of Our Eyes: Stories of the Unforgettable Teachers Who Illuminated Our Minds and Marked Our Lives - Jewish Journal - August 25th, 2022 [August 25th, 2022]
- Here Comes the Judge - Jewish Exponent - August 25th, 2022 [August 25th, 2022]
- Asking the Clergy: Your faith and recreational marijuana - Newsday - August 25th, 2022 [August 25th, 2022]
- When Judaism considers the future, it looks to the past - Jewish Community Voice - August 25th, 2022 [August 25th, 2022]
- The Judaism And Zionism Of David Sarnoff - The Jewish Press - JewishPress.com - August 25th, 2022 [August 25th, 2022]
- Blessings From Studying The Zera Shimshon - The Jewish Press - JewishPress.com - August 25th, 2022 [August 25th, 2022]
- You Say it but Do You Believe it? - The Jewish Press - JewishPress.com - August 25th, 2022 [August 25th, 2022]
- Facing a personal reckoning, with a dose of absurdity, on a bus tour of Naziland - Forward - August 25th, 2022 [August 25th, 2022]
- Ezra Furman and the Tireless, Sacred Work of Being Alive | Interview - The Line of Best Fit - August 25th, 2022 [August 25th, 2022]
- The Long and Short of a Well-Rounded Shabbos - The Jewish Press - JewishPress.com - August 25th, 2022 [August 25th, 2022]
- At many Bay Area synagogues, the real action is social action J. - The Jewish News of Northern California - August 25th, 2022 [August 25th, 2022]
- Abortion is a religious issue, but not in the way you think - Santa Fe New Mexican - August 6th, 2022 [August 6th, 2022]
- Jews and Muslims are fasting next week. Let's hold the interfaith activities another time. - Cleveland Jewish News - August 6th, 2022 [August 6th, 2022]
- A Pennsylvania candidate for governor cuts ties with Gab, and antisemitism on the site spikes - Forward - August 6th, 2022 [August 6th, 2022]
- Reading the Book of Psalms in the Twenty-First Century - Jewish Journal - August 6th, 2022 [August 6th, 2022]
- Rabbi's Caroline's invocation kicking off the Mayoral debate - Islander News.com - August 6th, 2022 [August 6th, 2022]
- Jewish Perspectives On Termination Of Pregnancy - Los Alamos Daily Post - August 6th, 2022 [August 6th, 2022]
- Tuesdays primaries offered a glint of hope for Democrats this fall - The Guardian - August 6th, 2022 [August 6th, 2022]
- Why Are There So Many Jewish Lawyers? - The Jewish Press - JewishPress.com - August 6th, 2022 [August 6th, 2022]