Category Archives: Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering is the alteration of an organisms genotype using recombinant DNA technology to modify an organisms DNA to achieve desirable traits. The addition of foreign DNA in the form of recombinant DNA vectors generated by molecular cloning is the most common method of genetic engineering. The organism that receives the recombinant DNA is called a genetically modified organism (GMO). If the foreign DNA that is introduced comes from a different species, the host organism is called transgenic. Bacteria, plants, and animals have been genetically modified since the early 1970s for academic, medical, agricultural, and industrial purposes. In the US, GMOs such as Roundup-ready soybeans and borer-resistant corn are part of many common processed foods.

Although classical methods of studying the function of genes began with a given phenotype and determined the genetic basis of that phenotype, modern techniques allow researchers to start at the DNA sequence level and ask: What does this gene or DNA element do? This technique, called reverse genetics, has resulted in reversing the classic genetic methodology. This method would be similar to damaging a body part to determine its function. An insect that loses a wing cannot fly, which means that the function of the wing is flight. The classical genetic method would compare insects that cannot fly with insects that can fly, and observe that the non-flying insects have lost wings. Similarly, mutating or deleting genes provides researchers with clues about gene function. The methods used to disable gene function are collectively called gene targeting. Gene targeting is the use of recombinant DNA vectors to alter the expression of a particular gene, either by introducing mutations in a gene, or by eliminating the expression of a certain gene by deleting a part or all of the gene sequence from the genome of an organism.

The process of testing for suspected genetic defects before administering treatment is called genetic diagnosis by genetic testing. Depending on the inheritance patterns of a disease-causing gene, family members are advised to undergo genetic testing. For example, women diagnosed with breast cancer are usually advised to have a biopsy so that the medical team can determine the genetic basis of cancer development. Treatment plans are based on the findings of genetic tests that determine the type of cancer. If the cancer is caused by inherited gene mutations, other female relatives are also advised to undergo genetic testing and periodic screening for breast cancer. Genetic testing is also offered for fetuses (or embryos with in vitro fertilization) to determine the presence or absence of disease-causing genes in families with specific debilitating diseases.

Gene therapy is a genetic engineering technique used to cure disease. In its simplest form, it involves the introduction of a good gene at a random location in the genome to aid the cure of a disease that is caused by a mutated gene. The good gene is usually introduced into diseased cells as part of a vector transmitted by a virus that can infect the host cell and deliver the foreign DNA (Figure 1). More advanced forms of gene therapy try to correct the mutation at the original site in the genome, such as is the case with treatment of severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID).

Traditional vaccination strategies use weakened or inactive forms of microorganisms to mount the initial immune response. Modern techniques use the genes of microorganisms cloned into vectors to mass produce the desired antigen. The antigen is then introduced into the body to stimulate the primary immune response and trigger immune memory. Genes cloned from the influenza virus have been used to combat the constantly changing strains of this virus.

Antibiotics are a biotechnological product. They are naturally produced by microorganisms, such as fungi, to attain an advantage over bacterial populations. Antibiotics are produced on a large scale by cultivating and manipulating fungal cells.

Recombinant DNA technology was used to produce large-scale quantities of human insulin in E. coli as early as 1978. Previously, it was only possible to treat diabetes with pig insulin, which caused allergic reactions in humans because of differences in the gene product. Currently, the vast majority of diabetes suffers who inject insulin do so with insulin produced by bacteria.

Human growth hormone (HGH) is used to treat growth disorders in children. The HGH gene was cloned from a cDNA library and inserted into E. coli cells by cloning it into a bacterial vector. Bacterial HGH can be used in humans to reduce symptoms of various growth disorders.

Although several recombinant proteins used in medicine are successfully produced in bacteria, some proteins require a eukaryotic animal host for proper processing. For this reason, the desired genes are cloned and expressed in animals, such as sheep, goats, chickens, and mice. Animals that have been modified to express recombinant DNA are called transgenic animals. Several human proteins are expressed in the milk of transgenic sheep and goats, and some are expressed in the eggs of chickens. Mice have been used extensively for expressing and studying the effects of recombinant genes and mutations.

Manipulating the DNA of plants (i.e., creating GMOs) has helped to create desirable traits, such as disease resistance, herbicide and pesticide resistance, better nutritional value, and better shelf-life (Figure 3). Plants are the most important source of food for the human population. Farmers developed ways to select for plant varieties with desirable traits long before modern-day biotechnology practices were established.

Plants that have received recombinant DNA from other species are called transgenic plants. Because they are not natural, transgenic plants and other GMOs are closely monitored by government agencies to ensure that they are fit for human consumption and do not endanger other plant and animal life. Because foreign genes can spread to other species in the environment, extensive testing is required to ensure ecological stability. Staples like corn, potatoes, and tomatoes were the first crop plants to be genetically engineered.

Gene transfer occurs naturally between species in microbial populations. Many viruses that cause human diseases, such as cancer, act by incorporating their DNA into the human genome. In plants, tumors caused by the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens occur by transfer of DNA from the bacterium to the plant. Although the tumors do not kill the plants, they make the plants stunted and more susceptible to harsh environmental conditions. Many plants, such as walnuts, grapes, nut trees, and beets, are affected by A. tumefaciens. The artificial introduction of DNA into plant cells is more challenging than in animal cells because of the thick plant cell wall.

Researchers used the natural transfer of DNA from Agrobacterium to a plant host to introduce DNA fragments of their choice into plant hosts. In nature, the disease-causing A. tumefaciens have a set of plasmids, called the Ti plasmids (tumor-inducing plasmids), that contain genes for the production of tumors in plants. DNA from the Ti plasmid integrates into the infected plant cells genome. Researchers manipulate the Ti plasmids to remove the tumor-causing genes and insert the desired DNA fragment for transfer into the plant genome. The Ti plasmids carry antibiotic resistance genes to aid selection and can be propagated in E. coli cells as well.

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a bacterium that produces protein crystals during sporulation that are toxic to many insect species that affect plants. Bt toxin has to be ingested by insects for the toxin to be activated. Insects that have eaten Bt toxin stop feeding on the plants within a few hours. After the toxin is activated in the intestines of the insects, death occurs within a couple of days. Modern biotechnology has allowed plants to encode their own crystal Bt toxin that acts against insects. The crystal toxin genes have been cloned from Bt and introduced into plants. Bt toxin has been found to be safe for the environment, non-toxic to humans and other mammals, and is approved for use by organic farmers as a natural insecticide.

The first GM crop to be introduced into the market was the Flavr Savr Tomato produced in 1994. Antisense RNA technology was used to slow down the process of softening and rotting caused by fungal infections, which led to increased shelf life of the GM tomatoes. Additional genetic modification improved the flavor of this tomato. The Flavr Savr tomato did not successfully stay in the market because of problems maintaining and shipping the crop.

Unless otherwise noted, images on this page are licensed under CC-BY 4.0 by OpenStax.

OpenStax, Biology. OpenStax CNX. May 27, 2016 http://cnx.org/contents/s8Hh0oOc@9.10:8CA_YwJq@3/Cloning-and-Genetic-Engineerin

Moen I, Jevne C, Kalland K-H, Chekenya M, Akslen LA, Sleire L, Enger P, Reed RK, Oyan AM, Stuhr LEB. 2012.Gene expression in tumor cells and stroma in dsRed 4T1 tumors in eGFP-expressing mice with and without enhanced oxygenation.BMC Cancer. 12:21. doi:10.1186/1471-2407-12-21 PDF

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Genetic Engineering Principles of Biology

Indeed, some people are adamant that germ-line engineering is being pushed ahead with false arguments. That is the view of Edward Lanphier, CEO of Sangamo Biosciences, a California biotechnology company that is using another gene-editing technique, called zinc fingers nucleases, to try to treat HIV in adults by altering their blood cells. Weve looked at [germ-line engineering] for a disease rationale, and there is none, he says. You can do it. But there really isnt a medical reason. People say, well, we dont want children born with this, or born with thatbut its a completely false argument and a slippery slope toward much more unacceptable uses.

Critics cite a host of fears. Children would be the subject of experiments. Parents would be influenced by genetic advertising from IVF clinics. Germ-line engineering would encourage the spread of allegedly superior traits. And it would affect people not yet born, without their being able to agree to it. The American Medical Association, for instance, holds that germ-line engineering shouldnt be done at this time because it affects the welfare of future generations and could cause unpredictable and irreversible results. But like a lot of official statements that forbid changing the genome, the AMAs, which was last updated in 1996, predates todays technology. A lot of people just agreed to these statements, says Greely. It wasnt hard to renounce something that you couldnt do.

The fear? A dystopia of superpeople and designer babies for those who can afford it.

Others predict that hard-to-oppose medical uses will be identified. A couple with several genetic diseases at once might not be able to find a suitable embryo. Treating infertility is another possibility. Some men dont produce any sperm, a condition called azoospermia. One cause is a genetic defect in which a region of about one million to six million DNA letters is missing from the Y chromosome. It might be possible to take a skin cell from such a man, turn it into a stem cell, repair the DNA, and then make sperm, says Werner Neuhausser, a young Austrian doctor who splits his time between the Boston IVF fertility-clinic network and Harvards Stem Cell Institute. That will change medicine forever, right? You could cure infertility, that is for sure, he says.

I spoke with Church several times by telephone over the last few months, and he told me whats driving everything is the incredible specificity of CRISPR. Although not all the details have been worked out, he thinks the technology could replace DNA letters essentially without side effects. He says this is what makes it tempting to use. Church says his laboratory is focused mostly on experiments in engineering animals. He added that his lab would not make or edit human embryos, calling such a step not our style.

What is Churchs style is human enhancement. And hes been making a broad case that CRISPR can do more than eliminate disease genes. It can lead to augmentation. At meetings, some involving groups of transhumanists interested in next steps for human evolution, Church likes to show a slide on which he lists naturally occurring variants of around 10 genes that, when people are born with them, confer extraordinary qualities or resistance to disease. One makes your bones so hard theyll break a surgical drill. Another drastically cuts the risk of heart attacks. And a variant of the gene for the amyloid precursor protein, or APP, was found by Icelandic researchers to protect against Alzheimers. People with it never get dementia and remain sharp into old age.

Church thinks CRISPR could be used to provide people with favorable versions of genes, making DNA edits that would act as vaccines against some of the most common diseases we face today. Although he told me anything edgy should be done only to adults who can consent, its obvious to him that the earlier such interventions occur, the better.

Church tends to dodge questions about genetically modified babies. The idea of improving the human species has always had enormously bad press, he wrote in the introduction to Regenesis, his 2012 book on synthetic biology, whose cover was a painting by Eustache Le Sueur of a bearded God creating the world. But thats ultimately what hes suggesting: enhancements in the form of protective genes. An argument will be made that the ultimate prevention is that the earlier you go, the better the prevention, he told an audience at MITs Media Lab last spring. I do think its the ultimate preventive, if we get to the point where its very inexpensive, extremely safe, and very predictable. Church, who has a less cautious side, proceeded to tell the audience that he thought changing genes is going to get to the point where its like you are doing the equivalent of cosmetic surgery.

Some thinkers have concluded that we should not pass up the chance to make improvements to our species. The human genome is not perfect, says John Harris, a bioethicist at Manchester University, in the U.K. Its ethically imperative to positively support this technology. By some measures, U.S. public opinion is not particularly negative toward the idea. A Pew Research survey carried out last August found that 46 percent of adults approved of genetic modification of babies to reduce the risk of serious diseases.

Link:
Engineering the Perfect Baby | MIT Technology Review

Genetic engineering, also called gene editing or genetic modification, is the process of altering an organism's DNA in order to change a trait. This can mean changing a single base pair, adding or deleting a single gene, or changing an even larger strand of DNA. Using genetic engineering, genes from one organism can be added to the genome of a completely different species. It is even possible to experiment with synthesizing and inserting novel genes in the hopes of creating new traits.

Many products and therapies have already been developed using genetic engineering. For example, crops with higher nutritional value, improved taste, or resistance to pests have been engineered by adding genes from one plant species into another. Similarly, expression of a human gene in yeast and bacteria allows pharmaceutical companies to produce insulin to treat diabetic patients. In 2020, scientists had their first successful human trial with CRISPR (a genetic engineering technique), to correct a mutant gene that causes sickle cell anemia, a painful and sometimes deadly blood disease.

There are many different genetic engineering techniques, including molecular cloning and CRISPR, and new techniques are being developed rapidly. Despite this variety, all genetic engineering projects involve carrying out four main steps:

Learn more about genetic engineering, and even try your hand at it, with these resources.

Build a Mobile Sculpture STEM actvity

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Genetic Engineering Science Projects - Science Buddies

DSI adoption at COP15 can financially help protect biodiversity in India: Experts  The Tribune India

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Tel Aviv University researchers demonstrate success of potential one-time vaccine to treat HIV/AIDS  ETHealthWorld

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Tel Aviv University researchers demonstrate success of potential one-time vaccine to treat HIV/AIDS - ETHealthWorld

Should You Buy 22nd Century Group Inc (XXII) Stock After it Has Risen 14.29% in a Week?  InvestorsObserver

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Should You Buy 22nd Century Group Inc (XXII) Stock After it Has Risen 14.29% in a Week? - InvestorsObserver

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PAEC has clear mandates on the safe use of modern sciences with an aim to improve the socio economic growth of the country. NIBGE is one of the main biotechnology institutes of the four bioscience centers of PAEC and was formally inaugurated by the President of Pakistan in 1994. It is also an affiliate center of ICGEB. The institute is a focal point of modern biotechnology and provides a technology receiving unit to help the development of country through applications of modern biotechnology and genetic engineering. The research programs at NIBGE are mainly aimed at improving agriculture, health, environment and industry and are supported by national and international financial grants. The institute research facilities include state of the art equipments supported by technical services, IT facility and a National Library for Biological Sciences. The institute now offers several services and marketable products. The educational programs leading to MPhil and PhD degrees have also been incorporated in the institutes mandate for the development of human resources in modern sciences.

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"The Covid data confirms the second law of infodynamics, and the research opens up unlimited possibilities. Imagine looking at a particular genome and judging whether a mutation is beneficial before it happens. This could be game-changing technology which could be used in genetic therapies, the pharmaceutical industry, evolutionary biology, and pandemic research," the researcher explained.

Vopson and Lepadatu's study claims that the observations directly contradict the second rule of thermodynamics' description of the evolution of physical entropy. This conclusion has far-reaching ramifications for many other branches of science.

"In physics, there are laws that govern everything that happens in the universe, for example, how objects move, how energy flows, and so on. Everything is based on the laws of physics," said Dr. Vopson.

"One of the most powerful laws is the second law of thermodynamics, which establishes that entropy a measure of disorder in an isolated system can only increase or stay the same, but it will never decrease."

This is an undisputed law linked to the arrow of time, demonstrating that time only moves in one direction. The lead author adds it can only flow in one direction and cannot go backward.

The study was first published in AIP Advances, a not-for-profit subsidiary of the American Institute of Physics (AIP).

One of the most powerful laws in physics is the second law of thermodynamics, which states that the entropy of any system remains constant or increases over time. In fact, the second law is applicable to the evolution of the entire universe and Clausius stated, The entropy of the universe tends to a maximum. Here, we examine the time evolution of information systems, defined as physical systems containing information states within Shannons information theory framework. Our observations allow the introduction of the second law of information dynamics (infodynamics). Using two different information systems, digital data storage and a biological RNA genome, we demonstrate that the second law of infodynamics requires the information entropy to remain constant or to decrease over time. This is exactly the opposite to the evolution of the physical entropy, as dictated by the second law of thermodynamics. The surprising result obtained here has massive implications for future developments in genomic research, evolutionary biology, computing, big data, physics, and cosmology.

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A recently discovered law of physics could help predict genetic mutations

There is no doubt that GMOs are beneficial to us, but there is sufficient data to demonstrate that GMOs have great potential for harm too.[Istockphoto]

The debate on Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) is upon us again and is still emotive and quite divisive.

Although we have more research, we still cannot be absolutely certain that we have adequate science to fully support GM foods. Genetic engineering (also called genetic modification of organisms - GMOs) uses laboratory-based technologies to alter the DNA makeup of an organism. This may involve changing a single base pair (A-T or C-G), deleting a region of DNA or adding a new segment of DNA.

This happens when a scientist tweaks a gene to create a more desirable organism by taking DNA from organism A and inserting it in organism B to improve it. The result is known as recombinant (a combination of DNAs of two organisms) or in cases of drugs the modified drug is known as transgenic. There are many reasons why organisms are genetically modified. For example, to make them more resistant to diseases, insects/bugs or to make them mature/ripen faster, stronger, bigger, better, sweater. For example, food crops have been modified by food engineers to be resistant to specific bugs, bad weather or to grow faster.

Genetic engineering is very different from cloning. Cloning is the process of creating a genetically identical copy or duplication of a cell or an organism. It has far-reaching ethical concerns although people tend to confuse the two, especially when criticising GMOs.

There are many persuasive arguments for and against GMOs. There is no doubt that GMOs are beneficial to us, but there is sufficient data to demonstrate that GMOs have great potential for harm too. Those who support GMOs have advanced persuasive arguments that genetic engineering can help us cure diseases, ensure food security and nutrition, improve the quality of lives and well-being and even lengthen our lives. For example, most drugs such as insulin and vaccinations are all genetically modified or engineered, without which many people would die. There are also ethical, safety and environmental concerns about GMOs.

No side of the argument for or against, can state with absolute certainty that GMOs are devoid of risks and concerns or they are all bad for us. The question is, can scientists guarantee that there will be no side effects after consuming GM foods? Or that huge multinational companies will ensure environmental and safety requirements are complied with when they come to Kenya?

The potential for abuse of GMOs has necessitated very elaborate checks and controls at both international and national levels. The issue of concern now is, does Kenya have such elaborate and well-resourced checks and controls in place? According to the National Biosafety Authority (NBA), Kenya has robust policy, legislative and institutional mechanisms to implement biotechnology innovations having ratified the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety in 2003 and approved the National Policy on Biotechnology Development in 2006 to guide research and commercialization of modern biotechnology products.

The Biosafety Act, 2009 provides for the legal and institutional frameworks governing modern biotechnology which are implemented by the NBA established under the Act in 2010. The NBA developed regulations in 4 areas; contained use, environmental release, export, import and transit; all three in 2011 and for labeling in 2012. The NBA says it has put in place GM safety assessment with the goal to provide assurance that GM foods do not cause harm based on their best available scientific knowledge, although, we are not so certain that we indeed have that best scientific knowledge available so far.

The NBA indicates that, research on genetic modification is done under appropriate experimental conditions; open cultivation of genetically modified crops is safe for human health and the environment; they ensure safe movement of genetically modified materials in and out of the country and ensure accurate consumer information and traceability of genetically modified products in the food supply chain.

They say that they do this through collaboration with other eight bodies in Kenya, including KEBs. Because GMOs require very careful scientific monitoring and control, it is important to ensure that open cultivation is done in phases and only on a case-by-case basis at a time.

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Farmers, consumers will embrace GMOs if they understand them - The Standard

Douglas Insights

The key players in the market currently include Scientific Genomics Inc, Thermo Fischer Scientific, Blue Heron, TeselaGen, GenScript, DNA2.0, Integrated DNA Technologies, Eurofins Scientific, Inc, Editas Medicine Inc., among others.

Isle of man, Oct. 10, 2022 (GLOBE NEWSWIRE) -- The Douglas Insights Search Engine is the worlds first engine that offers comparative market analysis, and it has also recently addedSynthetic Biologyto the database. Market analysts, industry specialists, business personnel, and all relevant entities can make use of this comparative engine to identify the drivers, hindrances, obstacles, limitations, and opportunities for growth in each market. With the help of these insights, future market predictions can also be made. The engine users will be able to sort the relevant information by price, publication date, publisher rating, and table of contents, all of which will make access easier.

Synthetic biology refers to using lab-generated technology to help with biological processes and concerns. Synthetic biology refers to the development of testing kits, vaccines, treatments, and infectious diseases. In fact, synthetic biology played a key element in the Covid-19 pandemic as well. The development of the vaccine was accelerated, and new technology was used for vaccine development, showing how Synthetic integral biology was to the ordeal. Other than medical applications, the industry also helps to further develop the food and agriculture industry through genetic engineering and genome synthesis and helps industries by manufacturing Biofuels, biomaterials, industrial enzymes, and other useful products.

There are many drivers in the field of synthetic biology due to its need in the current era. For example, the wide range of applications of synthetic biology is one of the main factors driving the market growth. Synthetic biology can be applied to various industries, including food and agriculture, industrial work, and of course, many medical applications. The medical applications of synthetic biology will be driving the market the most.

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Other than that, the market will also continue to grow due to the increased funding of research and development projects by many governments. This funding will fuel research into the industry and allow for more applications of synthetic biology to arise moving forward. One example is biofuels, which will be much more common and necessary for the environment in the coming years as well.

However, there are still quite a few factors that are currently restricting market growth. These include biosafety, ethical, and security concerns regarding biological safety. One example of ethical and safety concerns is the possible intentional or unintentional introduction of synthetic organisms into ecosystems which can cause great disruption. These organisms can also breed with naturally occurring microorganisms, causing hybrid species to be released and hampering the environment as we know it. In fact, this is one of the ways in which antibiotic-resistant microorganisms can also be generated.

The largest market share of synthetic biology goes to North America. This is because it is the hub of most of the market's key players and has the most funding for medically forward projects. Other than that, Europe and the Asia Pacific also have large shares in the market and will use them for further development in the arena.

The key players in the market currently include Scientific Genomics Inc, Thermo Fischer Scientific, Blue Heron, TeselaGen, GenScript, DNA2.0, Integrated DNA Technologies, Eurofins Scientific, Inc, Editas Medicine Inc., among others. These players are working on further developments while also adding to the industry at present.

The tools currently used in the synthetic biology market include enzymes, Oligonucleotides, synthetic DNA, Synthetic cells, cloning technology, xeno nucleic acids, and chassis organisms. The technology being used in the market at present includes gene synthesis and genetic engineering, cloning, bioinformatics, sequencing, nanotechnology, micro fluids, among many others.

Key questions answered in this report

COVID 19 impact analysis on global Synthetic Biology industry.

What are the current market trends and dynamics in the Synthetic Biology market and valuable opportunities for emerging players?

What is driving Synthetic Biology market?

What are the key challenges to market growth?

Which segment accounts for the fastest CAGR during the forecast period?

Which product type segment holds a larger market share and why?

Are low and middle-income economies investing in the Synthetic Biology market?

Key growth pockets on the basis of regions, types, applications, and end-users

What is the market trend and dynamics in emerging markets such as Asia Pacific, Latin America, and Middle East & Africa?

Unique data points of this report

Statistics on Synthetic Biology and spending worldwide

Recent trends across different regions in terms of adoption of Synthetic Biology across industries

Notable developments going on in the industry

Attractive investment proposition for segments as well as geography

Comparative scenario for all the segments for years 2018 (actual) and 2031 (forecast)

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Synthetic Biology Market is Expected to Report a CAGR of ~21% from 2021 to 2029: Industry Size, Growth & Forecast at Douglas Insights - Yahoo...