This article is adapted fromAQ'sspecial issue on the U.S.-Mexico relationship. To receiveAQat home,subscribe here.
I recently asked a group of mostly American students to identify important military figures in wars involving the United States. They easily produced names from the War of Independence, the Civil War and World War II. But they went blank trying to remember heroes from other wars, including one in particular: the Mexican-American War of 18461848. Most could sing the opening line from the Marine Hymn, From the Halls of Montezuma but none knew where it came from.
Are there some wars that nations prefer to forget? Such collective amnesia is odd, since the Mexican-American War marked such a pivotal moment in the history of both countries. The story is certainly better known in Mexico, which lost half its territory in the war and still remembers the nios heroes, a group of teenage cadets who bravely resisted the U.S. invasion of Mexico City and then leaped to their death off the barricades of Chapultepec Castle rather than surrender to the gringo invaders. But overall, on both sides of the border, the war is viewed mostly with regretand, perhaps, as a cautionary tale on the unique perils of picking a fight with ones neighbor.
For the United States, the war heralded the triumph of Manifest Destiny while also nurturing the 19th-century notion of the invincible Anglo-Saxon man, destined to rule over lesser peoples, brown and black. With the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo that ended the war, the United States increased its size by more than a thirdvirtually all of the American Southwest. But what most altered U.S. history was the consequent debate on whether the annexed territories should become free or slave states, a debate that helped trigger the American Civil War.
Several distinguished Americans condemned the war. Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau and Walt Whitman censured it on ethical grounds. Abraham Lincoln argued that it had no legal justification. William Lloyd Garrison, abolitionist par excellence, summed the war up as follows:
If ever war was waged for basest ends, By means perfidious, profligate and low, It is the present war with Mexico, Which in deep guilt all other wars transcends.
Perhaps the most withering criticism of the war can be found in Ulysses S. Grants memoirs, where he writes that (The) occupation, separation and annexation (of Texas) were, from the inception of the movement to its final consummation, a conspiracy to acquire territory out of which slave states might be formed for the American Union. It was an instance of a republic following the bad examples of European monarchies, in not considering justice in their desire to acquire additional territory. A page later, he affirms that (The) Southern rebellion was largely the outgrowth of the Mexican war. Nations, like individuals, are punished for their transgressions. We got our punishment in the most sanguinary and expensive war of modern times. In sum, Grant saw the Civil War as a divine retribution for what the U.S. did to Mexico.
If the United States chooses not to remember the war, Mexicans remember it too wellbut with a mixture of pride and shame. In addition to the courageous nios hroes, they can take pride in the guerilla tactics of Father Jarauta, who repeatedly disrupted Winfred Scotts supply lines. They might also remember the Patricios, the Irish-American soldiers who defected to Mexico rather than fight against fellow Catholics, as well as the countless Mexican campesinos forced to fight under incompetent generals like Antonio Lpez de Santana. General Grant writes of these men:
The Mexican army of that day was hardly an organization. The private soldier was picked up from the lower class of the inhabitants when wanted; his consent was not asked; he was poorly clothed, worse fed, and seldom paid. He was turned adrift when no longer wanted. With all this I have seen as brave stands made by some of these men as I have ever seen made by soldiers. (The Mexicans) stood up as well as any troops ever did. The trouble seemed to be the lack of experience among the officers, which led them after a certain time to simply quit, without being particularly whipped, but because they had fought enough.
But the real embarrassment for Mexico is that their leaders failed to play to their advantages. The United States launched two invasions: one from Texas under General Zachary Scott and another from Veracruz on the eastern coast under General Winfred Scott. The Yankees were better equipped and better trained. But this alone cannot explain how they were able to cover hundreds of miles over difficult terrain before occupying Mexico City. What best explained their victory were the divisions within Mexican society, which in broad strokes consisted of three major groups: anticlerical liberals set on limiting the powers and capping the wealth of the church; conservatives who wanted to restore traditional rights to the church; and a third group, overlapping with the Catholic faction, who wanted to bring a monarch from Europe to govern Mexico. General Scott was particularly good at exploiting these divisions. For example, he bought supplies and gained free passage through Puebla merely by promising Puebla Catholics that he would respect the rights of the Churchabout which he probably could not have cared less.
Mexican historian Heriberto Fras, in his book La Guerra Contra los Gringos, basically agrees with Grants diagnosis of the weaknesses of the Mexican army, writing that, From that moment (of the first battle) there spread throughout the army the most abominable dissension, one of the principal causes of the bloody catastrophes of that war of cursed memory. He goes on to condemn the repugnant and execrable egoism of the Mexican generals, who could never agree on a coordinated plan.
Arguably, Mexicos side of the story may best be found in a series of historical novels such as Guillermo Zambranos Mxico por Asalto, Francisco Martn Morenos Mxico Mutilado, Patricia Coxs El Batalln de San Patricio, or Ignacio Solares La Invasin. Particularly interesting in Solares novel are his attempts to draw parallels between General Scotts advance toward Mexico City and Hernn Corts march toward Tenochtitln. Both accomplished their goals by taking advantage of divisions within the local populace.
Since that fateful day in 1848 when Mexico signed away half of its territory, relations between the United States and Mexico have seen ups and downs. One recalls the sentence attributed to Mexican President (and autocrat) Porfirio Daz: Poor Mexico. So far from God and so close to the United States.
In the last several decades, things seemed to be improving. The United States benefitted enormously from undocumented Mexican labor, and Mexican-descended U.S. citizens contribute much to the American mosaic. Similarly, NAFTA, for all its flaws, has benefitted both countries. But we should not forget that fatal war of the late 1840s and the fact that when things go badly, conflicts have a way of bringing out some of the worst in both countries.
Excerpt from:
Here's What Happens When the US and Mexico Fight - Americas Quarterly
- Differences Between Utilitarianism and Ethical Egoism - January 2nd, 2023 [January 2nd, 2023]
- Ethical Egoism vs. Psychological Egoism | What is Ethical Egoism ... - December 21st, 2022 [December 21st, 2022]
- Ethical Egoism | Philosophy - November 25th, 2022 [November 25th, 2022]
- Rachels Psychological and Ethical Egoism - Emory University - November 21st, 2022 [November 21st, 2022]
- Ethical Egoism: The Morality of Selfishness - 1000-Word Philosophy: An ... - November 21st, 2022 [November 21st, 2022]
- Consequentialist Theories: Ethical Egoism & Utilitarianism - October 23rd, 2022 [October 23rd, 2022]
- What is the Difference Between Psychological Egoism and Ethical Egoism ... - October 23rd, 2022 [October 23rd, 2022]
- How to Handle Ethical Issues in the Workplace - October 23rd, 2022 [October 23rd, 2022]
- Will 2023 Be Better Or Worse Than 2022? OpEd - Eurasia Review - October 8th, 2022 [October 8th, 2022]
- We Need to Talk about the Heartless Harfoots of Rings of Power - Paste Magazine - September 29th, 2022 [September 29th, 2022]
- Can A Religion Other Than Islam Ever Be Accepted OpEd - Eurasia Review - September 6th, 2022 [September 6th, 2022]
- Ethical Theories Summarized & Explained ... - Objectivism In Depth - August 25th, 2022 [August 25th, 2022]
- McMahons WWE Retirement Marks End of An Era Amid Tempestuous Allegations - Wrestling Headlines - July 27th, 2022 [July 27th, 2022]
- Buddhism as Self-Help: On Jay L. Garfield's Losing Ourselves: Learning to Live without a Self - lareviewofbooks - June 11th, 2022 [June 11th, 2022]
- Losing Ourselves: Learning to Live Without a Self - Next Big Idea Club Magazine - May 28th, 2022 [May 28th, 2022]
- Qur'an And Torah On Religious Pluralism Is God's Will OpEd - Eurasia Review - May 21st, 2022 [May 21st, 2022]
- Economic Theory and Conceptions of Value (Part 1) - New Ideal - March 23rd, 2022 [March 23rd, 2022]
- Ethics | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - February 9th, 2022 [February 9th, 2022]
- 10 Denim Industry Experts on the Highs, Lows and Predictions for 2022 - Sourcing Journal - January 24th, 2022 [January 24th, 2022]
- What Is Ethical Egoism and its Examples Example | GraduateWay - December 23rd, 2021 [December 23rd, 2021]
- Ch. 3: Ethical Egoism - Lucid Philosophy - October 19th, 2021 [October 19th, 2021]
- My daughter no longer speaks to me or my husband, and mocked our family values. Do we cut her out of her $2 million inheritance? - MarketWatch - July 29th, 2021 [July 29th, 2021]
- The Goal of Yoga - Daily Pioneer - July 14th, 2021 [July 14th, 2021]
- Religious Diversity And Religious Revival Will Come Together OpEd - Eurasia Review - July 14th, 2021 [July 14th, 2021]
- Global Ethical Responsibility in the Context of Covid - Valdai Discussion Club - July 2nd, 2021 [July 2nd, 2021]
- North Korea criticises nations for piling up the excessive supply of COVID-19 vaccines - WION - June 6th, 2021 [June 6th, 2021]
- Book Review: Philanthropy - Can the rich save the world? - Independent Catholic News - January 5th, 2021 [January 5th, 2021]
- The Difference Between Ethical Egoism & Ethical ... - August 8th, 2020 [August 8th, 2020]
- 75th Anniversary of the Great Victory: Shared Responsibility to History and our Future - New Europe - June 20th, 2020 [June 20th, 2020]
- Vladimir Putin: The real lessons of the 75th anniversary of World War II - The New Times - June 20th, 2020 [June 20th, 2020]
- On the Mode of Existence of Smart Urban Object - ArchDaily - May 24th, 2020 [May 24th, 2020]
- 15 Important Pros and Cons of Ethical Egoism ConnectUS - April 9th, 2020 [April 9th, 2020]
- Ethical Egoism Theory Explained - HRF - February 29th, 2020 [February 29th, 2020]
- What Is Ethical Egoism? - ThoughtCo - December 13th, 2019 [December 13th, 2019]
- mile Durkheim and the Religion of Liberal Democracy - Tablet Magazine - November 17th, 2019 [November 17th, 2019]
- Beyond the chorus of indignation - The Jerusalem Post - October 24th, 2019 [October 24th, 2019]
- US Expels Cuban Diplomats for Threatening National Security - Headlinez Pro - September 24th, 2019 [September 24th, 2019]
- You say you want a revolution - Boulder Weekly - August 25th, 2017 [August 25th, 2017]
- Egoism: Examples and Definition | Philosophy Terms - August 9th, 2017 [August 9th, 2017]
- On Albert Einstein's peaceful musings - The Livingston County News - July 28th, 2017 [July 28th, 2017]
- The Courage to Face a Lifetime: On the Enduring Value of Ayn Rand's Philosophy - IAI News - July 27th, 2017 [July 27th, 2017]
- IDF Medics to Learn Groundbreaking Trauma Procedure - Breaking Israel News - July 17th, 2017 [July 17th, 2017]
- egoism | philosophy | Britannica.com - June 30th, 2017 [June 30th, 2017]
- Orwell vs Huxley vs Zamyatin: Who would win a dystopian fiction contest? - Scroll.in - June 25th, 2017 [June 25th, 2017]
- Mailbag: The limits of ethical egoism - Albany Democrat Herald - June 23rd, 2017 [June 23rd, 2017]
- 'Wounded but not dead' Cassola says AD right in not joini... - MaltaToday - June 6th, 2017 [June 6th, 2017]
- Free ethical relativism Essays and Papers - 123helpme - June 1st, 2017 [June 1st, 2017]
- Why Is It Difficult to Live Together in Differences? (A Reflection) - Netralnews - June 1st, 2017 [June 1st, 2017]
- Considerations for Planning Humanitarian Operations in Hybrid Warfare - smallwarsjournal - May 30th, 2017 [May 30th, 2017]
- Are These 5 Grievances About Millennials Character Strengths? - Siera Madre Weekly - May 28th, 2017 [May 28th, 2017]
- 'Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt' Season Three Proves It's The Smartest Show On Television - Decider - May 26th, 2017 [May 26th, 2017]
- Ethical issues in Nigeria's higher education and governance - Nigeria Today - May 26th, 2017 [May 26th, 2017]
- Are These 5 Grievances About Millennials Character Strengths? - monroviaweekly - May 26th, 2017 [May 26th, 2017]
- Psychological Egoism and Ethical Egoism - May 11th, 2017 [May 11th, 2017]
- Debate: Is Ayn Rand right about rights? - Learn Liberty (blog) - April 17th, 2017 [April 17th, 2017]
- Ahmad Zahid: Satirism is not a Malaysian culture - Yahoo News - Yahoo News - April 15th, 2017 [April 15th, 2017]
- In defence of hedonism - Irish Times - March 29th, 2017 [March 29th, 2017]
- Pope Francis, Religion, Capitalism, and Ayn Rand - The Objective Standard - March 8th, 2017 [March 8th, 2017]
- Reinhold Niebuhr and our common good - Bowling Green Daily News - March 5th, 2017 [March 5th, 2017]
- A Jewish Social Vision Jewish Theology, Pt. VI - Patheos (blog) - March 4th, 2017 [March 4th, 2017]
- The Weakness and wickedness of Kiir's Administration: South Sudan in political and ethnic crisis - Borglobe - February 25th, 2017 [February 25th, 2017]
- Rebel Crossings by Sheila Rowbotham review feminist utopian dreams - The Guardian - February 25th, 2017 [February 25th, 2017]
- Human Nature, Morality, & Salvation Jewish Theology Pt. IV - Patheos (blog) - February 25th, 2017 [February 25th, 2017]
- Lecture series explores ethics in sports industry - Observer Online - February 15th, 2017 [February 15th, 2017]
- More than a game: ND Ethics Week examines sports and the common good - ND Newswire - February 6th, 2017 [February 6th, 2017]
- THE BACKSTORY: How Trump got to yes on Gorusch -- PLAYBOOK EXCLUSIVE: PETRAEUS warns US ... - Politico - February 6th, 2017 [February 6th, 2017]
- Consequentialism - Wikipedia - December 25th, 2016 [December 25th, 2016]
- Comparing Psychological & Ethical Egoism - Study.com - December 25th, 2016 [December 25th, 2016]
- Psychological Egoism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - December 21st, 2016 [December 21st, 2016]
- Psychological Egoism - University of Idaho - December 7th, 2016 [December 7th, 2016]
- Rational egoism - Wikipedia - November 21st, 2016 [November 21st, 2016]
- Ethical Egoism - Mega Essays - October 29th, 2016 [October 29th, 2016]
- Ethical Egoism - Education - September 20th, 2016 [September 20th, 2016]
- Dave's Philosophy - Ethics: Ethical Egoism & Altruism - August 10th, 2016 [August 10th, 2016]
- Egoism - New World Encyclopedia - July 10th, 2016 [July 10th, 2016]
- Ethical Egoism - College Essays - 1656 Words - StudyMode - July 10th, 2016 [July 10th, 2016]
- Psychological Egoism - Philosophy Home Page - July 10th, 2016 [July 10th, 2016]
- Egoism - Queensborough Community College - July 10th, 2016 [July 10th, 2016]
- Psychological Egoism vs Ethical Egoism | Flow Psychology - June 28th, 2016 [June 28th, 2016]
- Ethical Egoism and Biblical Self-Interest | Papers at ... - June 27th, 2016 [June 27th, 2016]