Daily Archives: March 30, 2020

Thermodynamic Challenges to the Origin of Life – Discovery Institute

Posted: March 30, 2020 at 7:53 am

Editors note: As an alternative to what you are getting pretty much everywhere else in the media at the moment,Evolution Newsis proud to offer inspiration, pointing to purpose and meaning in life. The profoundest mystery and thus the deepest inspiration is life itself. Discovery Institute Press has just published a greatly expanded edition of the 1984 classic of intelligent design science literature,The Mystery of Lifes Origin. Below is an excerpt adapted from a brand new chapter in the book. Dr. Miller, the author of the chapter, is Research Coordinator for the Center for Science & Culture. He holds degrees in physics from MIT (B.S.) and Duke University (Ph.D.).

The thermodynamic barriers to the origin of life have become decidedly more well defined since this books first publication. The initial challenges described in the original edition still stand. Namely, spontaneous natural processes always tend toward states of greater entropy, lower energy, or both. The change of entropy and energy are often combined into the change of free energy, and all spontaneous processes move toward lower free energy. However, the generation of a minimally functional cell on the ancient Earth required a local system of molecules to transition into a state of both lower entropy and higher energy. Therefore, it must move toward dramatically higher free energy. The chance of a system accomplishing this feat near equilibrium is astronomically small.

Many origin-of-life researchers have responded to this challenge by arguing that a system driven far from equilibrium could self-organize into a functional cell through processes that are connected to such monikers as complex systems, emergence, synergetics, or nonequilibrium dissipative systems. The basic hope is that some new physical principles could overcome the barriers to lifes origin mandated by classical thermodynamics. However, advances in nonequilibrium thermodynamics have proven that the odds of a system driven far from equilibrium generating an autonomous cell are no greater than the odds for one near equilibrium.

Others have proposed that natural engines on the early Earth converted one form of energy into another that could drive a local system to sufficiently high free energy. These approaches have proven equally disappointing. The only plausible explanation for the origin of life is intelligent agency.

Read the rest inThe Mystery of Lifes Origin: The Continuing Controversy, from Discovery Institute Press.

Photo: An endothelial cell, byIP69.226.103.13 / CC BY-SA.

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Is Ethereum 2.0 the evolution of blockchain platforms? – Cryptopolitan

Posted: at 7:53 am

Ethereum 2.0 launch is making quite a buzz for various different reasons including the final date of launch. Where there is appreciation there is also some heavy criticism against the Ethereum 2.0 plan.

While on the other hand, the crypto industry is the space where finance and tech overlap each other, the tremendous benefits of decentralized blockchain coupled with finance could drastically revolutionize the ecosystem. So, it seems that decentralized finance (DeFi) is becoming a promising venture for the Ethereum ecosystem.

Recently, the founder of ConsenSys, Joseph Lubin talked about the upcoming launch of Ethereum 2.0, the challenges faced by it related to its rollout, and about the Ethereum ecosystem and DeFi. He emphasized that the narrative of the DeFi and the narrative of the Ethereum ecosystem are simultaneously valid.

While discussing whether DeFi would be committing the same mistake which the traditional system made. Lubin stated that DeFi being the open programmable financial system enables the programmers to directly touch the live financial rails and that program value tokens moving alongside those rails, there would be many obstacles. However, after getting ahold of it and building it out in layers, it would be exceptionally empowering.

According to the DeFi Pulse data, after crossing the mark of $1billion with reference to total value locked in decentralized finance (DeFi), the numbers have now plummeted to $600 million.

Lately, the decentralized finance (DeFi) has been under the scanner after several commentators highlighted that within the ecosystem, levels of centralization has been rising.

Centrifuges Token Designer, Cassidy Daly recently stated that within the decentralized finance (DeFi) ecosystem, there have been many projects that failed to be decentralized.

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22nd Century Group, Inc. (XXII) is primed for evolution with the beta value of 1.31 – The InvestChronicle

Posted: at 7:53 am

Lets start up with the current stock price of 22nd Century Group, Inc. (XXII), which is $0.74 to be very precise. The Stock rose vividly during the last session to $0.79 after opening rate of $0.76 while the lowest price it went was recorded $0.71 before closing at $0.77.

22nd Century Group, Inc. had a pretty Dodgy run when it comes to the market performance. The 1-year high price for the companys stock is recorded $2.46 on 09/27/19, with the lowest value was $0.60 for the same time period, recorded on 03/12/20.

Price records that include history of low and high prices in the period of 52 weeks can tell a lot about the stocks existing status and the future performance. Presently, 22nd Century Group, Inc. shares are logging -69.96% during the 52-week period from high price, and 23.18% higher than the lowest price point for the same timeframe. The stocks price range for the 52-week period managed to maintain the performance between $0.60 and $2.46.

The companys shares, operating in the sector of healthcare managed to top a trading volume set approximately around 714303 for the day, which was evidently lower, when compared to the average daily volumes of the shares.

When it comes to the year-to-date metrics, the 22nd Century Group, Inc. (XXII) recorded performance in the market was -32.81%, having the revenues showcasing -34.01% on a quarterly basis in comparison with the same period year before. At the time of this writing, the total market value of the company is set at 93.53M, as it employees total of 67 workers.

According to the data provided on Barchart.com, the moving average of the company in the 100-day period was set at 1.0254, with a change in the price was noted -1.0109. In a similar fashion, 22nd Century Group, Inc. posted a movement of -57.77% for the period of last 100 days, recording 2,177,174 in trading volumes.

Total Debt to Equity Ratio (D/E) can also provide valuable insight into the companys financial health and market status. The debt to equity ratio can be calculated by dividing the present total liabilities of a company by shareholders equity. Debt to Equity thus makes a valuable metrics that describes the debt, company is using in order to support assets, correlating with the value of shareholders equity. The total Debt to Equity ratio for XXII is recording 0.01 at the time of this writing. In addition, long term Debt to Equity ratio is set at 0.00.

Raw Stochastic average of 22nd Century Group, Inc. in the period of last 50 days is set at 23.18%. The result represents downgrade in oppose to Raw Stochastic average for the period of the last 20 days, recording 47.97%. In the last 20 days, the companys Stochastic %K was 55.79% and its Stochastic %D was recorded 49.02%.

If we look into the earlier routines of 22nd Century Group, Inc., multiple moving trends are noted. Year-to-date Price performance of the companys stock appears to be encouraging, given the fact the metric is recording -32.81%. Additionally, trading for the stock in the period of the last six months notably deteriorated by -69.20%, alongside a downfall of -57.28% for the period of the last 12 months. The shares increased approximately by 13.17% in the 7-day charts and went up by 7.12% in the period of the last 30 days. Common stock shares were lifted by -34.01% during last recorded quarter.

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22nd Century Group, Inc. (XXII) is primed for evolution with the beta value of 1.31 - The InvestChronicle

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Acceleron Pharma Inc. (XLRN) is primed for evolution with the beta value of 1.11 – The InvestChronicle

Posted: at 7:53 am

Acceleron Pharma Inc. (XLRN) is priced at $87.05 after the most recent trading session. At the very opening of the session, the stock price was $79.42 and reached a high price of $87.94, prior to closing the session it reached the value of $82.03. The stock touched a low price of $79.42.

Acceleron Pharma Inc. had a pretty favorable run when it comes to the market performance. The 1-year high price for the companys stock is recorded $97.56 on 03/03/20, with the lowest value was $37.01 for the same time period, recorded on 06/11/19.

Price records that include history of low and high prices in the period of 52 weeks can tell a lot about the stocks existing status and the future performance. Presently, Acceleron Pharma Inc. shares are logging -10.77% during the 52-week period from high price, and 135.21% higher than the lowest price point for the same timeframe. The stocks price range for the 52-week period managed to maintain the performance between $37.01 and $97.56.

The companys shares, operating in the sector of healthcare managed to top a trading volume set approximately around 819578 for the day, which was evidently higher, when compared to the average daily volumes of the shares.

When it comes to the year-to-date metrics, the Acceleron Pharma Inc. (XLRN) recorded performance in the market was 64.18%, having the revenues showcasing 67.31% on a quarterly basis in comparison with the same period year before. At the time of this writing, the total market value of the company is set at 4.41B, as it employees total of 237 workers.

According to the data provided on Barchart.com, the moving average of the company in the 100-day period was set at 65.61, with a change in the price was noted +40.73. In a similar fashion, Acceleron Pharma Inc. posted a movement of +87.93% for the period of last 100 days, recording 617,927 in trading volumes.

Total Debt to Equity Ratio (D/E) can also provide valuable insight into the companys financial health and market status. The debt to equity ratio can be calculated by dividing the present total liabilities of a company by shareholders equity. Debt to Equity thus makes a valuable metrics that describes the debt, company is using in order to support assets, correlating with the value of shareholders equity. The total Debt to Equity ratio for XLRN is recording 0.00 at the time of this writing. In addition, long term Debt to Equity ratio is set at 0.00.

Raw Stochastic average of Acceleron Pharma Inc. in the period of last 50 days is set at 77.52%. The result represents improvement in oppose to Raw Stochastic average for the period of the last 20 days, recording 66.23%. In the last 20 days, the companys Stochastic %K was 52.28% and its Stochastic %D was recorded 43.34%.

Lets take a glance in the erstwhile performances of Acceleron Pharma Inc., multiple moving trends are noted. Year-to-date Price performance of the companys stock appears to be pessimistic, given the fact the metric is recording 64.18%. Additionally, trading for the stock in the period of the last six months notably improved by 112.47%, alongside a boost of 93.36% for the period of the last 12 months. The shares increased approximately by 7.45% in the 7-day charts and went up by 20.90% in the period of the last 30 days. Common stock shares were driven by 67.31% during last recorded quarter.

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Acceleron Pharma Inc. (XLRN) is primed for evolution with the beta value of 1.11 - The InvestChronicle

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Relive the evolution of Bad Bunny fashion on and off the red carpet – Up News Info

Posted: at 7:53 am

Boring and basic are two words that are not part of Bad bunnyVocabulary

The star of the Latin trap, whose real names are Benito Antonio Martnez Ocasio, he is not only known for his music around the world. It is also famous for its electrifying and daring fashion.

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Take a look at The Bad Bunny on stage or on the red carpet, and you'll see he's pulling out all the style stops with something as loud and eye-catching as his standout tunes.

In fact, she has previously explained how her love of fashion and singing often go hand in hand.

"My style influences my music and everything around me," he said. Billboard in a sitting interview. "You can tell that the way you dress is like a type of art form. I think everyone should dress (in a way that uses their creativity and as a way of expressing themselves however they want."

The 26-year-old star always appears and shows up no matter the occasion.

Since putting a third prosthetic eye on the 2018 American Music Awards to illuminate the Super bowl 2020 Halftime show in a silver coat featuring 13,000 Swarovski stones, her lewks are simply unique and unforgettable.

To see the glorious evolution of Bad Bunny fashion, please browse our gallery below.

ABC / Image Group LA

Spy eye

All eyes are on Bad bunny at the 2018 American Music Awards and he wants it that way! "The eye represents power and confidence," he shares with Billboard. From her black and white striped pants to her colorful skull embellished blouse, this is an iconic ensemble.

Michael Tran / FilmMagic

Orange you glad

The jewel-encrusted mask is just a jerk. But the orange over-the-face coat with butterfly accessories and a white hoodie make it even more fabulous.

Jeff Kravitz / FilmMagic

Silver Fox

The 26-year-old singer makes the crowd go wild in the Super bowl 2020 Halftime show. Her custom dazzled silver coat also blows away with her 13,000 blinding Swarovski stones that were hand-stitched and hand-selected.

Eric Jamison / Invision / AP / REX / Shutterstock

Green with envy

Green with envy! The Puerto Rican star makes the red carpet her runway at the Billboard Music Latin Awards in her lavender outfit and lime green hair.

Alexander Tamargo / Getty Images

In the ring

This lewk is a knockout! Bad Bunny takes the stage in Miami in an eccentric outfit: the bright yellow plaid pants, the red sneakers and the fighting belt are the chef's kiss.

David Becker / Getty Images for LARAS

Suitable

The Latin trap singer pays tribute to one of his heroes at the 2018 Latin Grammy Awards: Stone Cold Steve Austin.

Youtube

Blank vision

The Bad Rabbit looks like an angel in his white suit that he puts on in his music video "If We Were Together,quot;.

(Photo by Sam Wasson / FilmMagic)

Majestic purple

the YHLQMDLG The singer serves up lewks at the 2018 Billboard Latin Music Awards in his violet outfit, featuring floral embroidery, yellow diamond accents, and more.

Kevin Mazur / WireImage

Everything in the details

Looking chic and chic! The "Go,quot; star wears a completely black fit that combines high fashion with everyday wear at the 2019 MTV Video Music Awards.

Dia Dipasupil / VMN19 / Getty Images for MTV

Sunny yellow

One word: unforgettable! the Oasis singer takes the stage with J Balvin at the 2019 MTV Video Music Awards in an electrifying custom-made costume.

Kevin Winter / Getty Images for Coachella

Color me happy

Bad Bunny makes a great entry during his 2019 Coachella with a colorful design by Imran Moosvi. His holographic sunglasses and black combat boots tie the eye-catching lewk.

Steve Marcus / Getty Images

Bright and bold

Fashion highlight literally! Bad Bunny brings bright, bold style front and center at the Calibash 2019 event in Las Vegas.

Victor Chavez / Getty Images for Spotify

Matrix humor

El Conejo Malo bets on a gothic and glamorous atmosphere at the Spotify Awards 2020 with his Matrix-esque set.

Alexander Tamargo / Getty Images

Checkered daddy

Sometimes less it is plus. The "Caro,quot; singer wears a gray checkered suit that is anything but basic.

Scott Dudelson / Getty Images

Slam dunk

The 26-year-old star takes the stage in Inglewood, California, and pays tribute to the Los Angeles Lakers in his purple and gold jersey.

Jeff Kravitz / FilmMagic

Gucci Get-Up

Feeling Gucci! Bad Bunny brings luxury fashion to the basketball court with his GG embossed coat at the State Farm 2020 All-Star Game.

Kevin Winter / Getty Images for Coachella

I Perreo Sola Vibes

The Latin trap singer lights up the stage at Coachella 2019 in his neon hoodie and matching multi-colored suit.

Richard Shotwell / Invision / AP

Flower power

Not suitable for boring or basic outfits, El Conejo Malo makes all the fashionable stops at the 2017 Latin American Music Awards. He even wears a diamond pendant that he had specially made.

Denise Truscello / Getty Images for LARAS

Royal blues

Her voice may be smooth as buttuh, but her fashion is smooth as velvet! The 26-year-old star appears and performs in a larger than life blue velvet coat at the 2019 Latin Grammy Awards.

We can't wait to see what the Latin trap singer wears next.

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Relive the evolution of Bad Bunny fashion on and off the red carpet - Up News Info

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Exhaust Podcast: The Evolution of Motocross Gaming – Racer X Online – Racer X Online

Posted: at 7:53 am

We know. If Racer X went heavy on video games a month ago, a lot of fans would wonder what the heck was going on. But with real racing shut down for at least a few months, virtual versions of the real thing have become theonlything. NASCAR and Fox Sports have gone heavy, announcing Sundays will be filled with real drivers racing on TV but using video game simulations. Can that work in supercross and motocross? Not quite, but we can try to work the edges. In this edition of theRacer X Exhaust Podcast, Jason Weigandt and our online content editor, Kellen Brauerperhaps the world's foremost expert in motocross gamingdiscuss the evolution of dirt bikes in the virtual and digital world. What are today's games like? How close are they to the real thing? Will serious gamers ever get the 2.0 versions of their favorite old games? These topics are now more important than ever!

The Racer X Exhaust podcast is presented by Yoshimura.

Subscribe via iTunesor your favorite podcast app by searching for the Racer X Podcast Network. It's also available on theRacer X Illustrated YouTube channel, Spotify, andGoogle Play Music.

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How a new twist on quantum theory could solve its biggest mystery – New Scientist

Posted: at 7:50 am

The "wave function collapse" transforms vague clouds of quantum possibilities into the physical reality we know but no one knows how. New experiments are finally revealing reality in the making

By Philip Ball

IN THE minuscule realm of atoms and particles, it looks as though things exist not so much as things at all, but as vague clouds of possibilities. They seem to be here, there and everywhere, or appear to be this and that all at once until you look at them. Then the quantum haze is suddenly distilled into something definite and describable, a thing we recognise as real.

That much we know. The trouble is that quantum mechanics, the theory that describes this uncertain world, has been mostly silent about how the so-called collapse from fuzzy probabilities to solid certainties happens. Some physicists prefer to avoid the question altogether. Others suggest that we need to add something new to complete our understanding of how our familiar physical reality emerges from the quantum.

But what if the whole picture was there all along, and we just werent looking carefully enough? Thats the startling suggestion from recent experiments that have, for the first time, given us a glimpse inside collapse as it happens. Physicists are still coming to terms with what they have witnessed, and it is too early to say for certain what it all means. But already there are hints that the latest results could finally point the way towards the truth about how the world we know is conjured from the quantum realm.

Quantum theory enjoys exalted status in science because it describes the microscopic world with peerless accuracy. It was developed in the 1920s to explain why subatomic particles, such as electrons, seem to sometimes behave like waves, while light waves can show particle-like behaviour

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Will String Theory Finally Be Put to the Experimental Test? – Scientific American

Posted: at 7:50 am

Many physicists consider string theory our best hope for combining quantum physics and gravity into a unified theory of everything. Yet a contrary opinion is that the concept is practically pseudoscience, because it seems to be nearly impossible to test through experiments. Now some scientists say we may have a way to do exactly that, thanks to a new conjecture that pits string theory against cosmic expansion.

What it comes down to is this question: Does the universe show us all of its quantum secrets, or does it somehow hide those details from our classical eyes? Because if the details can be seen, string theory might not be able to explain them.

One way to rule out the idea is if we can prove that it does not predict an essential feature of the universe. And string theory, it turns out, has a persistent problem describing the most popular account of what went on during the universes earliest moments after the big bang: inflation.

Inflation is the most compelling explanation for why our universe looks the way it does and where the structure came from, says Marilena Loverde, a physicist at Stony Brook University. Inflation explains how, in a sense, we got everything in the universe from nothing. The theory says that the early universe went through a phase of extreme expansion. The process magnified random blips in the quantum vacuum and converted them into the galaxies and other stuff around us.

Theorists have had difficulty, though, showing how, or if, inflation works in string theory. The most promising road to doing sothe so-called KKLT constructiondoes not convince everyone. It depends who you ask, says Suddhasattwa Brahma, a cosmologist at McGill University. It has been a lingering doubt in the back of the minds of many in string theory: Does it really work?

In 2018 a group of string theorists took a series of suggestive results and argued that this difficulty reflected an impossibilitythat perhaps inflation just cannot happen in the theory. This so-called de Sitter swampland conjecture claimed that any version of the concept that could describe de Sitter spacea term for the kind of universe in which we expect inflation to take placewould have some kind of technical flaw that put it in a swampland of rejected theories.

No one has proved the swampland conjecture, and several string theorists still expect that the final form of the theory will have no problem with inflation. But many believe that although the conjecture might not hold up rigidly, something close to it will. Brahma hopes to refine the swampland conjecture to something that would not bar inflation entirely. Maybe there can be inflation, he says. But it has to be a very short period of inflation.

Any limit on inflation would raise the prospect of testing string theory against actual data, but a definite test requires a proof of the conjecture. According to Cumrun Vafa, a physicist at Harvard University and one of the swampland conjectures authors, researchers can start to build a case for the idea if they can connect it to trusted physical laws. There are two levels of it, he says. First is being more confident in the principle. And then theres explaining it.

One approach to building confidence might try to explain what sort of physical rule would limit inflationor, to put the inquiry in a more practical way: How could string theorists hope to persuade cosmologists to reconsider a favored theory?

These kinds of questions led Vafa and his Harvard collaborator Alek Bedroya to seek out a physics-based reason that could justify the swampland conjecture. They found a candidate in a surprising place. It turns out that inflation already has an unsolved problem looking for a solution: theorists have not all agreed on what happens to the very tiniest quantum details when expansion occurs and magnifies the static of the vacuum.

Physicists lack a working theory that describes the world below the level of the so-called Planck length, an extremely minute distance where they expect the quantum side of gravity to appear. Proponents of inflation have typically had to assume that they can one day work those trans-Planckian details into it and that they will not make a big difference to any predictions. But how that step will happen remains an open question.

Vafa and Bedroya have given a simple answer: forget about it. Their new trans-Planckian censorship conjecture asserts that extremely tiny quantum fuzziness should always stay extremely tiny and quantum, despite the magnifying effect of expansion. If this idea is true, it implies limits on the amount of inflation that could happen, because too much of it would mean too much magnification of the trans-Planckian details.

So in a new twist for string theory, researchers can actually look to the sky for some answers. How much inflation is too much for the censorship conjecture? The situation is a bit complicated. Several different models for the actual process of inflation exist, and astrophysicists do not yet have data that confirm any one of them, or the basic idea as a whole, as the correct description of our universe. Researchers have begun working out the limits the new conjecture puts on the many versions of inflation. Some have a built-in way to hide trans-Planckian details, but Loverde says that many of the typical models conflict with the conjecture.

One clear conflict comes from primordial gravitational waves. These waves, which theorists expect arise during the inflationary phase, would have left behind a faint but distinct sign in the cosmic microwave background. So far, they have not been seen, but telescopes are actively looking for them. The censorship conjecture would only allow a ridiculously, unobservably small amount, Loverde saysso small that any sign of these waves would mean the conjecture does not apply to our universe unless theorists can come up with a different explanation for them.

Does this conjecture really amount to a test of string theory? No,it is too early to say that, according to Vafa. The principles are still just conjecturesfor now. The more one connects these principles togethersurprising, unexpected relationsthe more it becomes believable why its true, he says.

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Devs: Alex Garland on Tech Company Cults, Quantum Computing, and Determinism – Den of Geek UK

Posted: at 7:50 am

Yet that difference between the common things a company can sell and the uncommon things they quietly develop is profoundly important. In Devs, the friendly exterior of Amaya with its enormous statue of a childa literal monument to Forests lost daughteris a public face to the actual profound work his Devs team is doing in a separate, highly secretive facility. Seemingly based in part on mysterious research and development wings of tech giantsthink Googles moonshot organizations at X Development and DeepMindDevs is using quantum computing to change the world, all while keeping Forests Zen ambition as its shield.

I think it helps, actually, Garland says about Forest not being a genius. Because I think what happens is that these [CEO] guys present as a kind of front between what the company is doing and the rest of the world, including the kind of inspection that the rest of the world might want on the company if they knew what the company was doing. So our belief and enthusiasm in the leader stops us from looking too hard at what the people behind-the-scenes are doing. And from my point of view thats quite common.

A lifelong man of words, Garland describes himself as a writer with a laymans interest in science. Yet its fair to say he studies almost obsessively whatever field of science hes writing about, which now pertains to quantum computing. A still largely unexplored frontier in the tech world, quantum computing is the use of technology to apply quantum-mechanical phenomena to data a traditional computer could never process. Its still so unknown that Google AI and NASA published a paper only six months ago in which they claimed to have achieved quantum supremacy (the creation of a quantum device that can actually solve problems a classical computer cannot).

Whereas binary computers work with gates that are either a one or a zero, a quantum qubit [a basic unit of measurement] can deal with a one and a zero concurrently, and all points in between, says Garland. So you get a staggering amount of exponential power as you start to run those qubits in tandem with each other. What the filmmaker is especially fascinated by is using a quantum system to model another quantum system. That is to say using a quantum computer with true supremacy to solve other theoretical problems in quantum physics. If we use a binary way of doing that, youre essentially using a filing system to model something that is emphatically not binary.

So in Devs, quantum computing is a gateway into a hell of a trippy concept: a quantum computer so powerful that it can analyze the theoretical data of everything that has or will occur. In essence, Forest and his team are creating a time machine that can project through a probabilistic system how events happened in the past, will happen in the future, and are happening right now. It thus acts as an omnipotent surveillance system far beyond any neocons dreams.

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Maximizing the efficiency of a quantum circuit – Tech Explorist

Posted: at 7:50 am

Quantum circuits are collections of quantum gates interconnected by quantum wires. They are building blocks of computers that use mechanical effects to perform tasks.

However, no quantum circuit is entirely error-free. Scientists around the globe are keen to optimize the efficiency of quantum circuits.

In a new study, scientists at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) used mathematical analog and devised an algorithm to address this problem. The algorithm counts the number of computing resources necessary and optimizes them to obtain maximum efficiency.

Aninda Sinha, Associate Professor at the Centre for High Energy Physics, IISc, and corresponding author of the study said,We were able to [theoretically] build the most efficient circuit and bring down the number of resources needed by a huge factor.

Pratik Nandy, Sinhas Ph.D. student and a co-author of the paper, said, Analogously, there are universal quantum gates for making quantum circuits. In reality, the gates are not 100 percent efficient; there is always an error associated with the output of each gate. And that error cannot be removed; it merely keeps on adding for every gate used in the circuit.

The most efficient circuit does not minimize the error in the output; rather, it minimizes the resources required for obtaining that same output. So the question boils down to given net error tolerance, what is the minimum number of gates needed to build a quantum circuit?

In 2006, a study by the University of Queensland had suggested that the counting the number of gates to achieve maximum efficiency is equivalent to finding the path with the shortest distance between two points in some mathematical space with volume V. A separate 2016 study argued that this number should vary directly with V.

Scientists in this study went back to Queenslands original study and found that the total counting number of gates wont result in variation with V, somewhat it varies with V2.

By generalizing the studys assumptions and later introducing a few modifications, scientists found that the minimum number of gates indeed varies directly with the volume.

Surprisingly, the results of the study appear to link the efficiency optimization problem with string theory, a famous idea that tries to combine gravity and quantum physics to explain how the universe works.

According to scientists, this link can prove to be instrumental in helping scientists interpret theories that involve gravity. They also aim to develop methods that describe a collection of quantum circuits to calculate specific experimental quantities that cannot be theoretically simulated using existing methods.

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