Monthly Archives: June 2021

Sea ice across much of the Arctic is thinning twice as fast as previously thought, researchers have found.

Arctic ice is melting as the climate crisis drives up temperatures, resulting in a vicious circle in which more dark water is exposed to the suns heat, leading to even more heating of the planet.

The faster ice loss means the shorter north-eastern shipping passage from China to Europe will become easier to navigate, but it also means new oil and gas extraction is more feasible.

Calculating the thickness of sea ice from satellite radar data is difficult because the amount of snow cover on top varies significantly. Until now, the snow data used came from measurements by Soviet expeditions on ice floes between 1954 and 1991. But the climate crisis has drastically changed the Arctic, meaning this information is out of date.

The new research used novel computer models to produce detailed snow cover estimates from 2002 to 2018. The models tracked temperature, snowfall and ice floe movement to assess the accumulation of snow. Using this data to calculate sea ice thickness showed it is thinning twice as fast as previously estimated in the seas around the central Arctic, which make up the bulk of the polar region.

Robbie Mallett of University College London, who led the study, said: Sea ice thickness is a sensitive indicator of the health of the Arctic and, when the Arctic warms, the world warms.

Thicker ice acts as an insulating blanket, stopping the ocean from warming up the atmosphere in winter and protecting the ocean from the sunshine in summer. Thinner ice is also less likely to survive during the Arctic summer melt.

Changes in the Arctic are also increasingly believed to influence extreme weather such as heatwaves and floods around the northern hemisphere. The rapid thinning of sea ice has consequences for human activities in the Arctic as well.

The newly exposed waters enabled storms to hit coastal communities and erode coasts, Mallett said. The opening of the shorter north-eastern shipping route around Siberia means less fuel is needed to transport goods between China and Europe, leading to lower carbon emissions.

In February, a cargo ship made a round trip for the first time in winter. However, this also raises the risk of fuel spillages in the Arctic, the consequences of which could be dire, said Mallett.

Theres also a lot of interest in oil and gas extraction from the Russian shelf seas, Mallett said. But the research revealed much greater annual variability in ice thickness than estimated before. Knowing the thickness of the ice is pretty critical to planning those activities, so the enhanced variability is generally bad news for those planning to work in the Arctic, he said.

The Soviet-era data was hard won, Mallett said. They sent these brave guys out and they sat on these drifting stations and floated around the Arctic, sometimes for years at a time, measuring the snow depth. But the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identified the lack of more recent data as a key knowledge gap in 2019.

Sea ice thickness is calculated from satellite radar data that measures how high the ice sits above the sea surface. Snow on top of the ice is invisible to the radar signals but it weighs the ice down, so it is critical to know the depth of snow.

Sea ice has begun forming later and later in the year, so the snow on top has less time to accumulate, said Mallett. Our calculations account for this declining snow depth for the first time. The research is published in the journal The Cryosphere.

We are still learning about the changes to the Arctic environment, and one of the big unknowns or less well-knowns is snow cover, said Walt Meier, at the US National Snow and Ice Data Center, and not involved in the new research. The approach in the study is a significant improvement over older methods, and the results fit with other changes were seeing with Arctic sea ice, including earlier melt onset, lower summer ice cover, and later freeze-up.

Prof Julienne Stroeve, at UCL, said: There are [still] a number of uncertainties but we believe our new calculations are a major step forward. We hope this work can be used to improve climate models that forecast the effects of long-term climate change in the Arctic a region that is warming at three times the global rate and whose ice is essential for keeping the planet cool.

Continue reading here:

Arctic sea ice thinning twice as fast as thought, study finds - The Guardian

Despite marrying Carrie Symonds on Saturday, Prime Minister Boris Johnson has enjoyed a "romantic" afternoon tea for two in Cornwall.

It wasn't the real PM and he wasn't spending time with his new wife but an "oilhead" as part of a "creative action" at the Tregenna Castle hotel in St Ives, where many of the world's leaders will be staying for next week's G7 Summit.

Theatrical protesters Ocean Rebellion staged the action to call out British politics' involvement with the fossil fuel industry.

Sophie Miller, of the group, said: "Our political leaders are not in control. The oil industry still exerts excessive influence over our politicians and the International Maritime Organisation, all of whom are complicit in this relationship.

"High level political decisions are keeping us on a trajectory for a catastrophic four degrees of global heating and despite this, the UK government is still investing 32 times more on fossil fuels than on renewable energy."

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Rob Higgs, also of Ocean Rebellion, added: "We are in a climate catastrophe that is already affecting us all, particularly those in the global south.

"Instead of acting as if we are in an emergency our leaders and the oil industry focus on short term financial gains while destroying the planet, leaving future generations to face the consequences. Here in Cornwall villages such as Flushing face sea level rises that will render them uninhabitable."

He said:"Despite marrying Carrie Symonds on Saturday, Boris Johnson is continuing his love affair bromance with the oil industry and we fear the G7 will be yet another example of this."

Sophie added: "We call on our global leaders to make the climate a priority at the G7 Summit to show true courage, act with appropriate urgency and to stop the empty promises and green wash. The fossil fuel industry has no place in politics."

Ocean Rebellion has been created by a small group, active in Extinction Rebellion (XRUK) since inception, who are central contributors to its "distinctive branding, media-facing narratives and theories of change".

A spokesperson for the group said: "Ocean Rebellion is formally separate from XR in all respects but draws on lessons learned in XRs development.

"We anticipate that Ocean Rebellion will grow to be a global movement offering facilitation of grassroots actions to protect, enhance and repair the high seas."

Read more stories:

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Ocean Rebellion mocks Prime Minister Boris Johnson at G7 summit host hotel as part of 'creative action' - Cornwall Live

Sitting in his carefully curated home, surrounded by military emblems and aviation books, Jim Jennings smiles.

His eyes light up as he describes his countless adventures over his 60-year career as a pilot in the Royal New Zealand Air Force.

He is the only person to ever fire rounds at a foreign ship in New Zealand waters, hes travelled the world for his country, and hed do it all again in a heartbeat.

The 79-year-old retired from the force last week, but his passion for the skies will never waver.

READ MORE:* Royal New Zealand Navy celebrates 21st birthday of Te Taua Moana Marae in Auckland* New Plymouth teenager excited by military career prospects after joining Navy* Meet three Kiwi women who serve their country on sea, land and in the air

Raised on a farm in Canterbury, Jennings knew he wanted a different life.

Mechanically minded, he used to watch as the planes would take off from Christchurch Airport in Harewood.

He was tempted by commercial flying, but why drive a bus when you can ride in a sports car.

Supplied

Jim Jennings sits in the nearest Skyhawk in a line-up at the hakea No. 75 Squadron tarmac.

Nothing made his blood boil quite like the rush of speeding through the sky in a jet plane, he said.

He joined the service in 1961 as an aircraft mechanic, but simply working on the fixed-wings wasnt enough.

If you enjoy something, and youve put your heart and soul into it, you can get it.

The itch to take the controls took hold of him, and six years later he took to the skies.

You suddenly realise everything is up to you. Theres a bit of pressure on but once you get that milestone you're away.

Its one of the best decisions I ever made.

He spent his time piloting jets like the Harvard Mk.II, the DH104 Devon, and the de Havilland Vampire, but it was the McDonnell Douglas A4-K Skyhawk that stole his heart.

Supplied

A Navy ship chases the Kin Nan fishing ship through Taranaki waters.

The Kin Nan, a Taiwanese squid boat, was lurking in New Zealand waters in 1976, which gave Jennings the story of a lifetime.

New Zealand was surrounded by fishing boats, he said. Just about every Asian country, plus the Russians, were pillaging our fisheries around the countryside.

There was very little policing going on because the Navy only had small patrol crafts that were designed for inshore work, not out on the high seas.

Navy ships were battling to bring Kin Nan in and away from the 12-mile invisible line that separated legal and illegal fishing. But, with limited firepower, they were helpless to stop them, Jennings said.

Two of these [Navy] patrol crafts had been chasing this Taiwanese fleet, which had been cruising the Taranaki coast, and had finally caught one of these boats in the 12 miles.

The boat turned due west and sailed and the Navy were in hot pursuit. They fired a few shots off the bow and the Taiwanese thing did not stop.

As Jennings returned from a practise bombing exercise in his Skyhawk, he was ordered to take flight again in search of the ship.

They just think, Theyre nice people they're not ogling to shoot at us, they havent got any Navy thats going to do much about it, Jennings said.

What we were doing was what we trained for all the time. The difference was we actually had something to stop.

With armour piercing ammunition he headed for the vessel.

It took something with a bit of firepower. I was the lucky guy in the right place.

In just over one second he fired 53 rounds, about 300 yards ahead of the ship.

They got the message loud and clear, he said.

It put up an awful lot of spray. It was huge. That little finishing boat stopped absolutely dead in its tracks. Unbelievably quick.

The crew was arrested and taken back to New Plymouth and charged.

Supplied

Jim Jennings stands in front of a Skyhawk at Base hakea in his final days of service.

Jennings was proud of the role he played in changingthe course of fishery protection.

You get an awful lot of satisfaction, not just personal, but youve done stuff for the country, you changed things.

It sent a very clear message back to other nations who were doing the fishing and poaching around New Zealand that we were prepared to take action.

His wife Faye and two sons have been at his side as he travelled the world following his passion.

He was grateful for the sacrifice they made when he moved them to Malaysia for almost three years, and for being patient when he was deployed to Iran for six months.

As he takes a step back from the ranks and back into civilian life, he was looking forward to taking some time to relax with Faye.

But if the opportunity comes, hell be back in the cockpit.

Read this article:

Top gun leaves the skies after six decades of service - Stuff.co.nz

Kira Lisitskaya (Photo: Andrey Solomonov/Sputnik)

The Soviet government used all kinds of bait to lure people to eat fish. Why?

Thursdays fish day is a phrase familiar to many Russians from childhood. In the USSR, a fish day was introduced not once, but twice, yet still it struggled to catch on.

In 1932, People's Commissar for Supplies and future Minister of Food Industry Anastas Mikoyan was seriously concerned about the shortage of meat. Collectivization and aggressive food taxes on the peasantry had led to a pig breeding crisis, a reduction in livestock and, ultimately, mass famine in 1930-33.

This prompted Mikoyan to issue an order on the introduction of a fish day at public catering establishments. It didn't have to be Thursday, but from that moment on, factory and other canteens began to serve fish one day a week in a variety of forms: cutlets, croquettes, fried, in soup. Fish is rich in easily digestible protein, phosphorus, iodine and many other beneficial vitamins and nutrients.

"Time for everyone to know how tasty and tender canned crab is

Soviet propaganda went into overdrive, advertising fish products everywhere from outdoor posters to in-store displays. There appeared a popular slogan that reverberated around all canteens: Theres always room on the menu for fish! Fish dishes make meals more diverse!

At the dawn of the Soviet state, the Main Directorate of Fisheries (known as Glavryba) was set up under the People's Commissariat for Supplies. In 1939, it was decided to allocate a special place to fish and create an entire People's Commissariat for Fisheries, to be headed by Polina Zhemchuzhina, the wife of Foreign Affairs Minister Vyacheslav Molotov.

One of her main tasks was to develop the canning industry. Back then, canning was the only quick way to get fish to every table in the vast Soviet empire. Saury, salmon, sprats through Zhemchuzhina's efforts, more than 50 types of canned goods appeared in abundance in all stores.

Soviet housewives came up with numerous recipes that are still popular today, including sandwiches with sprats and festive salads, such as herring under a fur coat and "mimosa" with pink salmon.

Salmon, Sevruga: Natural canned foods

Whats more, until the death of Stalin, black and red caviar was very inexpensive and accessible. Actively farmed in the Caspian Sea, it was one of the countrys top exports. But whereas in tsarist times caviar had been willingly consumed, Soviet people didnt really get it. Some posters even exhorted: "Make yourself eat caviar."

"Make yourself eat caviar"

During WWII the fish lobby quietened down, but the 1950s soon gave birth to the mass production of cheap and popular canned foods such as "sprats in tomato". According to legend, Secretary General Nikita Khrushchev, having tasted it, said that it was impossible to imagine a better dish. "Sprats in tomato" became a favorite of students, hikers and drinkers looking for a tasty snack.

Herring is an indispensable snack

In the 1960s, the USSR decided to master the high seas, becoming a leading ocean-fishing nation in the process. Such fish was uncommon in that it reached the consumer only in frozen form, plus no one knew how to cook it properly.

After another meat shortage in 1976, the Central Committee of the Communist Party decided to introduce a specific fish day , settling on Thursday.

"Save time: buy fish products"

The official reason given was that Thursday would be the best day for fish sales. Another opinion holds that Thursday was chosen as a poke in the eye to Orthodox believers, since their fasting days are traditionally Wednesday and Friday (official doctrine did all it could to encourage atheism).

Workers did not like this day fish dishes in the canteen were rarely tasty. As such, it was believed that fish day might negatively impact productivity, so it was set later in the week.

Quality inspector at the canning workshop of the Yamalo-Nenets Fish Factory, 1972

I couldnt stand Thursdays. The smell and sight of that canteen fish! I tried to bring a sausage sandwich with me or just skipped lunch that day, Muscovite Sergey recalls his youth in the late 1970s.

Russians had many jokes about fish day: for example, on Thursdays, it was said, brothels were swimming with mermaids.

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The day is finally here. The engines kick-start with a mighty roar, the deck sways gently and the air grows thick with the clinking of champagne glasses. Its sunset on May 20, 2021, and as I watch the port of Southampton fade into the horizon, the gravity of the situation finally hits me cruise ships are back.

The LED ceiling onboard the MSC Virtuosa. (Credit: Ivan Sarfatti/MSC Cruises)

Today, I am lucky enough to be on board not only the maiden voyage of the brand new 1 billion MSC Virtuosa, but also the first cruise to embark from the UK since the coronavirus pandemic brought this much-loved industry to a standstill.

The MSC Virtuosa at sea. (Credit: Ivan Sarfatti/MSC Cruises)

Im excited for this four-day jaunt around the English Channel with a quick stop in Portland but nowhere near as excited as cruise director Gene Young. This is a historic moment, he tells me, emphatically. We have been through 14 months of hell but now We. Are. Back!

MSC Virtuosa UK Restart

Gene is a charming and charismatic man, but I detect a hint of nervousness in his voice. As we all know, the entire cruise industry in fact, the entire tourism sector is watching this voyage with bated breath. Everything must go perfectly. One slip-up could send us right back to square one.

No wonder, then, that the embarkation process has been so strict. Two days ago, I took a PCR test (99 from Boots) in order to show my negative certificate at check-in this morning. I had to fill in a health questionnaire, then bought special Covid-19 cruise insurance (22 from Europ Assistance). I had my temperature taken as I made my way through the port, then a nasal swab test. Once that came back negative, I was finally allowed to embark.

Not a single passenger, I discover, tested positive at the port but that doesnt mean we can rest on our laurels. Even now, while on board, I am asked to wear a mask and observe social distancing in all public spaces. I have my temperature taken daily and the entire fourth deck is off-limits, acting as an isolation deck in case of an outbreak.

The restrictions may be strict, but the end result is that I feel totally safe and able to enjoy the impeccable hospitality onboard the MSC Virtuosa.

That experience begins in the Virtuosas gorgeous Italianate promenade. This boulevard is home to one of the worlds largest floating retail spaces, selling over 240 brands. One of the most prominent is Swarovski, who have also shelled out the materials for the Virtuosas million-euro staircase very glitzy.

MSC Virtuosa UK Restart

The promenade is also home to four speciality restaurants, several bars, a theatre and a Balinese spa (where you can enjoy a 45-minute massage for 119). Four days is seldom enough to sample everything, but even so, I try my best to take advantage of my Finest Four dining package.

While all guests are entitled to eat at any of the standard restaurants, upgrading to either the Duo (81), Trilogy (97) or Finest Four (124) dining packages is recommended. These allow guests to indulge in two, three or four restaurant experiences respectively. The standard of the food in these four venues is certainly a cut above.

By far my favourite of the Finest Four is Hola Tacos. Here, I get to dine with Jacques, the mastermind behind this novel concept of Mexican street food served on the high seas.

Hola Tacos_Ancho Tinga Taco Blue Corn Shell_MSC Virtuosa

In Hola Tacos, we have tried to create a unique concept, he explains, A fast, casual, affordable experience, with food to go.

The menu features everything from soft-shell tacos (from 1.79 each) to nacho platters (from 7) and burritos (11.99), all made with authentic ingredients (theres nothing TexMex going on here). The highlight is Jacques curated range of mezcals, a high-calibre agave alcohol which, despite being of the same family as tequila, tastes more like Scotch whisky. Jacques takes me through a prototype mezcal tasting, an experience he will soon start to offer from 25.

Guests try a mezcal tasting onboard the MSC Virtuosa

Maybe its the mezcal in my system or maybe its the gentle rocking of the ship, but I sleep like a baby on my first night. Maybe, then again, its because of my cabin. While nothing fancy, the balcony cabins offer everything a couple or solo traveller needs, most of all an incredibly comfortable double bed. Those wanting something a little more special can upgrade to one of the Royal Suites in the MSC Yacht Club, and family cabins are also available for up to ten people.

Balcony cabin onboard MSC Virtuosa

Speaking of families, I am especially struck by the great range of activities for kids. The Virtuosas top deck houses an adventure water park, featuring giant flume slides and high rope adventure trails. Below deck, there are a number of play areas for kids aged one to 17, the most eye-catching of which is the new Teens Lab, an AV club where young people can create a video memento of their time on the high seas. An arcade with bowling alley and an exciting Formula One simulator also feature.

Formula One simulator onboard MSC Virtuosa. (Credit: MSC Cruises)

Shore excursions are back on the agenda too, and my Covid-safe bubble gets to experience a leisurely trip around the Dorset countryside. We travel by coach from our dock in Portland, past the Cerne Abbas Giant hill figure on our way to the village of Minterne Magna. Here we enjoy afternoon tea and a (rather rainy) walk around the Himalayan Gardens of Minterne House.

Shore Excursion_Author shot_MSC Virtuosa

As one might expect, the experience is somewhat pared back by various restrictions masks and social distancing notwithstanding, we are shepherded very strictly to make sure we dont interact with anyone outside our bubble, and must of course take a temperature check on either side of our trip. But as far as experiences go at a time like this, this MSC shore excursion delivers to the best of its ability.

All in all, its safe to conclude the MSC Virtuosa has proven, definitively, that cruising is not only a safe and viable form of vacationing, but can still go above and beyond expectations. Yes, there are numerous restrictions and inconveniences, but these hardly spoil an otherwise luxurious, decadent, relaxing and altogether exciting experience.

How to plan your trip

Prices start from 299pp for two nights and 799pp for seven nights. Next cruises to leave the UK are seven-night sailings on June 12 and 19 from Southampton calling at Portland, Greenock and Liverpool. Visit msccruises.co.uk.

Read more from the original source:

Cruise ships are back but whats it really like to travel on Covid-safe seas? - The Independent

Actor Sebastian Stan doesnt get an on-screen love interest in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. But that doesnt mean he doesnt have one in real life. In June 2021, the star shared his love for his girlfriend, Alejandra Onieva, on social media. So what is the age difference between them?

RELATED: The Falcon and the Winter Soldier: How Old Is Bucky Barnes? Sebastian Stan Celebrated His Birthday

Stan began acting steadily in the 00s. After graduating from college, where he studied theater, he appeared in films likeThe Covenant, Hot Tub Time Machine, and the Oscar-winningBlack Swan. He also held recurring roles in popular TV series such asGossip GirlandOnce Upon a Time.

But far and away, Stans best-known gigs are within the MCU. He began portraying Bucky Barnes in 2011sCaptain America: The First Avenger, a role hes reprised several times since. Stan also starred alongside Anthony Mackie in the Disney+ Marvel seriesThe Falcon and the Winter Soldier.

Like many celebrities of his stature, Stans brought in media attention surrounding his personal life. However, there isnt too much to tell. Aside from reported short-lived romances with co-stars like Dianna Agron, Leighton Meester, and Jennifer Morrison, the 38-year-olds love life has remained relatively private.

In 2020, most stars got away with keeping their romantic relationships under wraps due to the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. So with minimal public appearances, no one knew who was dating whom. But when Stan stepped out with Onieva in mid-2020, it became clear this was serious.

As Stan spent the better part of the past year filming and doing press forThe Falcon and the Winter Soldier, hes been very busy. And though hes spoken about his work in interviews, hes kept his personal life private. That is, until June 1, 2021, when he shared a video for Onieva for her 29th birthday.

Happy Birthday @ale_onieva, Stan wrote on Instagram. Over a year ago, out of a lot of darknessyou became the light, he continued, adding, Im so grateful. In the video, Stan spends a day with his phone, where an image of Onieva is displayed. Likely, the two had to spend much of the year apart, thus the joke.

Despite their almost 10-year age difference (Stan turns 39 in August 2021), Onieva and Stan have things in common. Neither was born in the U.S. Stan lived in Romania and Austria before moving to New York as a child, while Onieva was born and raised in Madrid, Spain.

Onieva is also an actor by trade. She first gained notoriety for the telenovelaEl secreto de Puente Viejo. Shes continued to act on TV in the years since. Onieva starred in the Netflix mystery dramaAlta Mar(High Seas), which ended in 2020. In 2021, she began filming the movieHistorias Para No Contap(Stories Not to Be Told).

Link:

Sebastian Stan and Alejandra Onieva: The Age Difference Between the MCU Star and His Girlfriend - Showbiz Cheat Sheet

Officers responded to a 911 call of a boat sinking in Fire Island Pines Harbor at approximately 1 a.m.

Suffolk County Police Marine Bureau officers recently rescued two men from a sinking 25-foot sailboat in Fire Island Pines Harbor.

Police Officers William Houst, John Mullins, Michael Klarmann and Steven Squires, onboard Marine X-Ray, responded to a 911 call of a boat sinking in Fire Island Pines Harbor at approximately 1 a.m.

The lines on the sailboat broke and were being smashed against the dock and other boats. Chris Sinforter, 32, of Brooklyn, and Christian Teneyck, 37, of Jersey City, were onboard the sinking sailboat and unable to get off safely due to high seas.

Officers maneuvered Marine X-Ray next to the sailboat and helped the two men to jump safely to the rescue boat at approximately 2:30 a.m.

Officer Squires sustained minor injuries while catching the victim jumping from his vessel. He was transported to South Shore University Hospital in Bay Shore for treatment. Sinforter and Teneyck were uninjured.

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Suffolk Police Rescue Two Men from Sinking Sailboat in Fire Island Pines Harbor - LongIsland.com

The Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial body of India and is the top court under the Indian Constitution. It has wide-ranging powers and is considered to be one of Indias most powerful public institutions. But it did not start off like this.AFREEN ALAMproffers a brief introduction of the first Supreme Court(s) in India, giving details and context on some key early legislations that led to its formation.

BY the end of the 18thcentury, the East India Company (EIC) was in a terrible financial situation, primarily due to corruption. The EIC was in great debt and owed money to both the bank of England and the British government. Then British Prime Minister Lord North decided to overhaul the management of the EIC withthe Regulating Act of 1773.

The Act was the first step of the eventual government control of India post-1858. Itprovideda new administrative framework for the EIC. The President of the company in the Calcutta factory, who used to be known as the Governor of Bengal, was made the Governor-General of all the Indian territories of the company. The other governors of Bombay and Madras were made subordinate to him. He had a council of four members.

The Governor-general and council could make any rules, regulations, and ordinances they thought just and reasonable for Calcuttas order and good governance. Thus, the Act laid down the foundation of central administration in India.

One of the most significant provisions of the Act wasestablishinga Supreme Court at Calcutta.

The Act was brought about to reform the Constitution of the EIC and reform its government in India; hence the Governor-general, the councilors, the Chief Justice, and other Judges of the newly established Supreme Court were prohibited from accepting any gifts, presents, donations, gratuity or rewards from any person and from carrying on any trade or commerce of any kind for their personal use, benefit or advantage. Any of these above-mentioned persons were to be British subjects and could be tried at the Kings Bench in England if they committed any crime or offence as per the Act against any British subjects or any of the inhabitants of India.

Section 13 of the Act made detailed provisions for the establishment of the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court was to consist of a Chief Justice and Three Puisne Judges. The British King appointed the Judges. A barrister of five years standing was qualified to be appointed as Judges. The judges were to hold office during the pleasure of the crown.

Sir Elijah Impey wasappointedas the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. The judges of the Supreme Court were vested with such jurisdiction and authority as the Judges of the Court of Kings Bench in England had under the common law.

The Supreme Court of Calcutta was the first British Court in India consisting of lawyer judges; it was the first court fully independent of the control of the Companys government in India, and its jurisdiction was extensive. It had five kinds of jurisdiction: Civil, equity, criminal, admiralty, and ecclesiastical jurisdictions. It was empowered to establish rules of practice and process, and do all things necessary for the administration of Justice (according to section 13 of the Act).

The civil jurisdiction of the court was of two kinds: territorial and personal. With respect to the Presidency of Calcutta, the Supreme Court had territorial jurisdiction, which meant that all matters relating to all persons arising within the presidency of Calcutta fell within the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. Beyond the presidency lines and within the provinces of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, the Supreme Court had only personal jurisdiction. The Supreme Court was given the same equity jurisdiction as the High Court of Chancery in Great Britain had at that time.

The criminal jurisdiction of the Supreme Courtextendedto all British subjects residing in Kolkata and within the territories of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. Only the British people and the servants and persons employed with the company were covered under this jurisdiction. Other natives were not part of the courts jurisdiction.

The Supreme Court had to follow as far as possible the procedure of the English courts andworkedas a court of Oyer and Terminer, and Gaol Delivery in and for the town of Calcutta, the factory of Fort William, and the factories subordinate thereto. The court had no jurisdiction to try the Governor-General and the members of his council or the judges of the Supreme Court except in cases of treason or felony. Mercy petitions were transferred to the Crown Court in England on the recommendations of the Supreme Court.

The Supreme Court had the same admiralty jurisdiction in all cases civil and maritime and all maritime cases committed upon the high seas at that time. The Supreme Court also had the same jurisdiction over British subjects in India as the ecclesiastical courts in England at that time. In that capacity, it functioned as a court of testamentary and probate jurisdiction. It also appointed guardians and keepers for infants and lunatics properties.

Also read:Warren Hastings Era: Beginning of Indias Legal System

This was an amendment Actenactedto remove the defects of the Regulating Act of 1773. But in actuality, there was a lot of tussle between the Governor-general and the Supreme Court, so this Act was passed to reduce the Supreme Courts power and give it back to the Governor-General and his Council.

The servants of the EIC that earlier came within the Supreme Courts jurisdiction were now exempted from its jurisdiction. Now, the courts geographical jurisdiction becamelimitedto only Calcutta. Any other person who acted on the written orders of the Governor-general and his council was also exempted from the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.

The Supreme Court, after the enactment of the Act, had no jurisdiction in the concerning revenue, or any act that was done in the collection thereof. The government became independent of the control of the Court in the matter of revenue. The appellate jurisdiction therein shifted to the hands of the Governor-general and his Council, as appeals went from Provincial Courts to the Governor-general and his Council. This Act made the position of the Council very strong so that it could continue to have control over the Indian empire.

A positive change brought about by this Act was to protect the laws and customs of the native people. Section 17 of the Act states that all matters arising out of inheritance and succession to land and goods and all matters of contracts and dealings between the parties were to bedecidedaccording to their personal laws, and if the case was between Mohammedans and Hindus, then according to the law of the defendant.

The Supreme Court was authorized to make procedural rules and regulations according to the needs of the people to whom the law was to be applied. Therefore, they were, as far as possible, customizable to their habitat. The rules, regulations were to be laid before the British monarch for their approval, and the monarchy had the right to approve, correct, or reject them.

The Supreme Courts at Madras and Bombay wereestablishedby King George III in 1800 and 1823, respectively. Before the establishment of the Supreme Court, there were Recorders courts in these presidencies. Their jurisdiction was similar to that of the Supreme Court of Calcutta. But the Recorders Courts hardly functioned, so the Parliament replaced them with Supreme Courts.

The Constitutional powers, jurisdiction, function, and limitations of the two courts established at Madras and Bombay were thesameas that of the Supreme Court at Calcutta. The Act of 1823 had explicitly mentioned in its Section 17 that the Supreme Court at Madras and Bombay shall have the power to do, execute, perform and fulfill all such acts, authority, duties, matters and things whatsoever as the Supreme Court at Fort William might be authorized or empowered to do, execute, perform and fulfill within the Territory of Fort William in Bengal or places subject to or dependent upon its Government. This provision placed the three Supreme Courts in the same position.

These Supreme Courts functioned until 1862 when they werereplacedby High Courts at all three places through theIndian High Courts Act 1861.

(Afreen Alam is a Delhi-based researcher and writer.She is a law student at Jamia Millia Islamia, Delhi. The views expressed are personal.)

See the rest here:

The First Supreme Court(s) Of India - The Leaflet