Monthly Archives: January 2020

The deadly floods and storms that increasingly batter population centers in Japan and elsewhere as well as the epic forest fires enveloping swaths of territory in Australia embody the devastating impact of human-induced climate change.

Yet, policymakers in the leading emitting countries China, the United States, India, Russia and Japan show no urgency to reverse climate change, as evidenced by the collapse of the COP 25 climate summit in Madrid at the end of last year.

In these circumstances, better public understanding about the climate-disaster link could swing public opinion in favor of urgent action.

That is the significance of a new article providing evidence on the link between climate change and the rising incidence of extreme floods, storms, heat waves and droughts across the world. The article is Impacts of Carbon Dioxide Emissions on Global Intense Hydrometeorological Disasters, by myself, Ramon E. Lopez and Pablo A. Troncoso. It appears in the January edition of Climate, Disaster and Development Journal, January 2020.

This research delineates the main contributors to the increase in the frequency of intense hydrometeorological events, specifically floods and storms. It shows how the atmospheric carbon dioxide accumulation and associated changes in climatic patterns are contributing to the increased frequency of these events worldwide.

This investigation adopts an economic approach on climate data from 155 countries over 46 years (1970 to 2016). The data bring out the very high risks faced by countries like Japan, Australia and Bangladesh. The analysis is conducted within a framework that includes socio-economic factors, in other words, peoples exposure to the hazards and their vulnerability to them.

The findings show that in addition to peoples exposure and vulnerability, climate change is contributing to turning hazards of nature into disasters. The continuous rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration is significantly correlated with the increase in the number of extreme floods and storms. That means human actions have a decisive role in climate change. The results show that global climate conditions significantly affect the frequency of these disasters.

The results suggest that if the carbon dioxide level increases by 1 percent, floods and storms would increase by nearly 9 percent. The yearly increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide has been about 2.4 parts per million, or about 0.6 percent from the base 396.5 ppm level for 2010 to 2016. Accordingly, the number of intense hydrometeorological disasters could increase by 5.4 percent annually for an average country facing annually nearly one extreme disaster (defined as one that causes 100 or more fatalities and/or affects 1,000 or more people). So, with the current trends in carbon dioxide accumulation, the number of intense floods and storms could double (i.e., one more extreme event) in a span of 13 years.

The average annual number of extreme floods and storms in Japan is twice that of the average country. Extreme weather events have been more frequent in recent years. For example, Typhoon Hagibis, Japans largest storm in decades, battered the countrys northeast in October. Only a month before that, Typhoon Faxai hit the Kanto region, triggering massive blackouts in Chiba Prefecture. And the list goes on.

The crucial question is the link between anthropogenic climate change and the uptick in these extreme floods and storms as well as heat waves in Japan. The papers findings make clear that there is a strong and meaningful link between the rise in carbon emissions in the atmosphere and the increasing incidence of these extreme events, and Japan is part of this phenomenon. All indications are that this climate impact on lives and livelihoods in Japan will worsen in the coming years.

This link between the incidence of natural calamities and increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide has implications for environmental and economic policies. Rather than reacting to events as one-off and unpredictable occurrences, human-made events call for investments in prevention and mitigation programs. Our finding that the number of intense hydrometeorological disasters could double in 13 years under current trends calls for far greater investments in disaster risk reduction and mitigation.

The global evidence in this study, together with the attribution of specific disasters to climate change in the growing literature, are grounds for far stronger climate policies in Japan. Current efforts fall far short of what is needed, and this must be reversed.

On the one side, there needs to be far greater climate adaptation, such as relocating people from highly exposed regions, building better coastal defenses and enforcing building codes and retrofitting buildings.

Equally, there is a strong case for investing substantially and urgently in decarbonizing the Japanese economy. Japan is the fifth-biggest contributor to the worlds greenhouse gas emissions, and it is in the countrys and global interest to scale this back dramatically. The goal should be to end the dependency on coal and achieve a net zero carbon emission for the country well before 2050.

Vinod Thomas is a former senior vice president of the World Bank.

The rest is here:

With rising emissions, intense storms and floods could double in 13 years - The Japan Times

When the Independence Bill was debated in the British Parliament, then leader of opposition Winston Churchill remarked, The Indian political parties and political classes do not represent the Indian masses. It is a delusion to believe that they do. In handing over the government ofIndiato these so-called political classes, we are handing over to men of straw, of whom, in a few years, no trace will remain. Seventy years after the Constitution was adopted, many Indians are shockingly convinced that the prophetic observations of our worst critic may soon come true. This author, however, believes that our Constitution, political leadership and the highest court have performed fairly well, despite ups and downs.

American jurist Oliver Wendell Holmes famously said, The life of the law has not been logic: it has been experience. We are a successful democracy today and a leading economic power. There have been authoritarian and autocratic leaders as well, but they were also thrown out of power through popular vote. It is a matter of global concern that democracies are turning towards authoritarianism not through military coups, but through the ballot. In these challenging times, the courts must stand up to protect peoples rights from the rising authoritarianism tendencies.

Chief Justice Harilal Kania had said at the inauguration of the Supreme Court that the court must be quite untouchable by the legislature or the executive authority in the performance of its duties. Our Supreme Courts record has been by and large satisfactory in protecting civil liberties, though there have been a few anxious moments when the court behaved more like a committed judiciary upholding the curtailment of rights by the government.

Man since antiquity has pondered over the problem of how to reconcile the need for order and authority in society with the desire for individual liberty. In framing a government to be administered by men over men, the greatest difficulty indeed lies in this: You must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself. Humanity has always had a longing to be free in addition to being well governed. As a result, a great deal of thought and political inventiveness has gone into the attempt to create political systems that will allow governments and its organs to exercise all the power essential to attain the collective ends of the society, without compromising or destroying the liberties of its individual members. An attempt to institutionalise such a social condition is constitutionalismthe concept of limited government. Constitutionalism means that all power rests on the understanding that it will be exercised according to commonly accepted principles, that the persons on whom power is conferred are selected because it is thought that they are most likely to do what is right. Reverence and blind faith may be good for gods and goddesses, not political leaders. The governmental powers essential for the realisation of constitutional values should be controlled in order that it should not itself be destructive of the values it was intended to promote. Political masters must understand that peoples consent through elections cannot justify grossly immoral and unjust laws. In the Privacy judgment (2017), Justice Chalmeshwar rightly talked about the importance of silences of the Constitution and therefore government must keep in mind not only the text of the constitution but also its founding principles.

An Architectural History of Justice

Engraving dated 1860 depicting the interior of the Supreme Court of Madras (as the high court was known until 1862).

Photograph by Getty Images

Fundamental Rights as Limitations on Governmental Power

People had not surrendered basic human rights to the State even at the time of the social contract that brought the State into existence. In fact, the brutish, nasty, selfish humanity of so-called state of nature created the State only for the protection and preservation of these rights. Every human being is born with these rights and constitutions merely acknowledge them rather than confer them. These rights are inalienable and indivisible. The chapter on fundamental rights in our Constitution comprises 26 articles and these rights perform the sacred function of limiting the power of the State, from where the greatest threat to such rights comes, and thats why this chapter begins with the definition of State in Article 12. The other institutional methods of limiting the power are to be found in the doctrines of distribution of powers, separation of powers, rule of law and judicial review.

The Constitution has not used the expression judicial review, yet the constitutional courts do have this power as Article 13 says any law that contravenes fundamental rights shall be void to the extent of contravention. In fact, Chief Justice Kania in A.K. Gopalan (1951) said this article was included out of abundant caution and it merely makes explicit what is implicit in all constitutional limitations. Fundamental rights were given such importance that Article 32 entitles people to directly approach the highest court for the enforcement of these rights. B.R. Ambedkar called this article the very soul of the constitution. Chief Justice Patanjali Sastri observed in V.G. Row (1951) that the Supreme Court has been assigned the role of a sentinel on the qui vive. It is both the first court as well as the court of last resort for the protection of rights.

The demand of independence was itself an assertion of the right to self-determination and individual autonomy in expression, beliefs and opinions. The Constitution not only protects individual rights, but also guarantees group or community rights. In fact, while it made individual rights subject to reasonable restrictions, rights of minorities as under Article 30 were, textually speaking, made absolute. We borrowed from theUnited Statesthe idea of civil liberties. These fundamental rights largely reflected peoples aspirations, though important socio-economic rights were disappointingly put in the chapter on directive principles and made non- judiciable.

In the initial years, the apex court bestowed a lot of confidence in Parliament as the custodian of the Constitution, upholding constitutional amendments including the first that inserted the ninth schedule, which not only negated the mandate of Article 13, but endorsed a kind of hierarchy of laws under which ordinary laws passed even by the legislative assemblies acquired a status higher than the Constitution as they could no more be challenged as violating it. Similarly, in A.K. Gopalan (1950), the court called the preventive detention law a most unwholesome encroachment upon the liberties of the people, yet upheld it by giving an extremely narrow interpretation to the expression procedure established by lawand thus the government could take away the right to life or personal liberty with just any validly passed law.

The Madras High Court moved to a new complex that was built in 1892 in the Indo-Saracenic style.

Photograph by Getty Images

Our Constitution has not adopted the due process clause of the American constitution, observed Chief Justice A.N. Ray in Indira Nehru-Gandhi (1975). Reasonableness of legislative measure is unknown to the Constitution. The Constitution has denied due process as test of invalidating law. Thus even an arbitrary, unjust and unreasonable law will be valid. This was clear abdication of the courts role as the protector of peoples rights. Most preventive detention laws, including MISA and TADA, were similarly upheld by the court. NSA was upheld in A.K. Roy (1982). In practice, these laws were frequently used against the political dissenters, trade union leaders and petty criminals.

Surprisingly, the court in the early decades did uphold the rights of landlords and the propertied class. In fact, several land reforms laws did not find favour with the court, leading to tussle between Parliament and judiciary. The most assertive judgment on judicial powers was Golakh Nath (1967) where the court invalidated a few amendments from a prospective date because they were impinging on the fundamental rights. It said that under Article 368 Parliament does not have the constituent power to amend the Constitution in violation of fundamental rights as this article merely provided for the procedure of amendment.

Mrs Gandhi went to people against the court in 1971 elections and after winning a landslide overturned some court judgments. When Mrs Gandhis government again amended the Constitution, the court in Keshavanand Bharti (1973) accepted Parliaments power to amend, but subjected this plenary power to what the court called the basic structure of the Constitution. Thus the court promoted the idea of constitutionalism or limited powers, though it is true that the doctrine has given too much of the power to the court. In the Citizenship (Amendment) Act and dilution of Article 370 petitions, the court has to decide whether these two legislations violate two features of basic structure ie secularism and federalism, respectively.

The courts judgment in ADM Jabalpur (1976) was a big setback to civil liberties and is a blot on courts commitment to fundamental rights. Hundreds of people were detained under MISA during Emergency. A presidential order on June 27, 1975, had suspended Article 21. Several high courts proved to be independent enough to accept habeas corpus petitions, but in appeal the Supreme Court by 4:1 majority held that no relief can be given in the absence of Article 21. Chief Justice Ray held that liberty was a gift of law and may be forfeited. The dissenting judge said that without the sanctity of life and liberty, the distinction between a lawless society and one governed by laws would cease to have any meaning. Ray was indeed a committed Chief Justice who was appointed superseding three senior most judges. Finally the regressive decision was overruled in the Privacy judgment in 2017 with history being made in Justice Chandrachud overruling his own fathers judgment.

Supreme Courts Crises of Legitimacy

As true custodians of the Constitution, people ofIndiapunished Mrs Gandhi and for the first time a non-Congress central government took power in 1977. The court was now suffering from the crises of legitimacy and conscience as its reputation as upholder of liberties had gone down. In an effort to regain lost trust, the court in Maneka Gandhi (1978) overruled its judgment in Gopalan (1950) and observed that liberty can be curtailed only by a law that is fair, just, reasonable and non-arbitrary. Thus the due process clause was finally read into our Constitution.

A 1927 photo recent photo of the high court in Chennai.

In subsequent years, the court widened the ambit of fundamental rights by expanding the definition of other authorities in Article 12 and liberalising the doctrine of locus standi. Now the court no more asks the petitioner what right of yours is violated, but rather questions whose right has been violated.

The Public Interest Litigation(PIL) or Social Action Litigation restored peoples confidence in the court and the apex court was now termed as peoples court. PIL was indeed new juristic horizon and judicial socialism that worked towards the realisation of liberties. Prof Upenda Baxi rightly said that the court had now started taking the sufferings of the people seriously. For the first time, laws full potential as an agent of social change became a reality.

Realising that the court had let down people under detention, the first phase of PILs was largely about the rights of undertrials and arrested people. In Bhim Singh (1981) and Rudal Shah (1983), the court even ordered payment of compensation under writ jurisdiction for illegal detentions. The court came down heavily against extended detentions for petty crimes. In Altamash Rein (1988), it disapproved handcuffing if the accused is not likely to run away.

In the second phase of PIL, the court started rigorous review of governmental decisions and emphasised need of fairness and non-arbitrariness in the administrative decisions. Subsequently, the court used PILs to achieve the goals of social justice, with judgments prohibiting bonded labour and child labour. It also read several new rights in Article 21 such as right to speedy trial, right to livelihood, right to environment, right to education and right to privacy. In recent years, the court has become strict in admitting PILs as some people have converted it into private interest litigation. In recent years some lawyers sympathetic to the ruling party are using PILs to just get them dismissed or to score a political point.

In some PILs, the court entered the domain of policy-making, which ideally should be the exclusive domain of government. Some of its decisions like cancellation of 2G licenses contributed to the collapse of the telecom sector.

The Court In Mythical Archetype

Painting depicting a scene from the Mahabharata in which Bhishma explains the varna system of caste to Yudhishthira.

Lately, the highest court has showed no urgency in taking up habeas corpus petitions against mass detentions inKashmir. Delay in hearing and refusal of stay in the controversial and opaque electoral bonds petitions, delay in examining the constitutionality of demonetisation and dilution of Article 370 have also caused some anxiety about its independence. In Rafale, the court preferred governmental arguments and even in review refused to give any importance to the fact that the government provided wrong information. The investigation by N. Ram and documents published in were not taken into consideration even in the review.

In Aadhaar too, the court in an unprecedented move conferred unlimited and wide powers on the speaker to decide whether a bill is a money bill or not. The judgment has almost made Rajya Sabha irrelevant by upholding the speakers decision to treat Aadhaar as a money bill because the Aadhaar Act is to create unique identification for the disbursement of governmental subsidy or benefit out of the Consolidated Fund of India. All the concerns about surveillance and profiling were also rejected. The courts order on non-linking of Aadhaar with the opening of bank accounts is routinely violated and thats why governmental assurance on the non -submission documents during the NPR process has no takers.

The Supreme Courts judgment on the Babri mosque too was disappointing for many people. This author has no problem with the final order of handing over the disputed site for the construction of Ram temple as court itself admitted that if it is given to more than one party, no one will be able to peacefully enjoy and use this land. But the adoption of differential burden of proof for the two partiesconsidering mere belief as proof of possession for one party and insistence on the proof of exclusive possession from 1528 to 1858 for other partyhave not enhanced courts reputation as an impartial arbiter.

On the issue of Assam NRC, detention centres and foreigners tribunals too, not only did the court behave more like the executive, but it also ignored the danger of millions of Indian citizens being harassed due to its striking down of IMDT Act in Sonowals judgment (2005). The court got the final NRC list published on August 31, 2019 though a five judge bench has not yet pronounced its judgment on the constitutionality of Section 6A of Citizenship Act under which NRC Assam was undertaken. As many as 13 questions are pending before a five judge bench. The entire process is to be redone if Section 6A is struck down by the court.

Finally the courts reluctance in even hearing petitions against the dilution ofKashmirs special status and petitions challenging mass detention of people and the entire political leadership has revived the memories of ADM Jabalpur era.

But the latest judgment on right to internet and use of Section 144 has revived hopes in spite of court not passing any order striking down problematic governmental orders. One hopes that court will live up to people's expectations as the defender of their liberties.

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A shorter, edited version of this appeared in print

(Faizan Mustafa is the Vice chancellor of NALSAR University of Law, Hyderabad. Views expressed are personal.)

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