Category Archives: Space Exploration

October 27, 2021

An international team of scientists, using the ground-based Gemini Observatory telescope in Chile, is the first to directly measure the amount of both water and carbon monoxide in the atmosphere of a planet in another solar system roughly 340 light-years away.

The team is led by Assistant Professor Michael Line of Arizona State University'sSchool of Earth and Space Exploration, and the results have been recently published in the journal Nature. An artists concept of a hot Jupiter extrasolar planet. Credit: NASA, ESA, and L. Hustak (STScI) Download Full Image

There are thousands of known planets outside of our own solar system (called exoplanets). Scientists use both space telescopes and ground-based telescopes to examine how these exoplanets form and how they are different from the planets in our own solar system.

For this study, Line and his team focused on planet WASP-77Ab, a type of exoplanet called a hot Jupiter because they are like our solar systems Jupiter, but with a temperature upwards of 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit.

They then focused on measuring the composition of its atmosphere to determine what elements are present, compared with the star it orbits.

Because of their sizes and temperatures, hot Jupiters are excellent laboratories for measuring atmospheric gases and testing our planet-formation theories, Line said.

While we cannot yet send spacecraft to planets beyond our solar system, scientists can study the light from exoplanets with telescopes. The telescopes they use to observe this light can be either in space, like the Hubble Space Telescope, or from the ground, like the Gemini Observatory telescopes.

Line and his team had been extensively involved in measuring the atmospheric compositions of exoplanets using Hubble, but obtaining these measurements was challenging. Not only is there steep competition for telescope time, Hubble's instruments only measure water (or oxygen) and the team needed to also gather measurements of carbon monoxide (or carbon) as well.

This is where the team turned to the Gemini South telescope.

We needed to try something different to address our questions, Line said. And our analysis of the capabilities of Gemini South indicated that we could obtain ultra-precise atmospheric measurements.

Gemini South is an 8.1-meter diameter telescope located on a mountain in the Chilean Andes called Cerro Pachn, where very dry air and negligible cloud cover make it a prime telescope location. It is operated by the National Science Foundations NOIRLab (National Optical-Infrared Astronomy Research Laboratory).

Using the Gemini South telescope, with an instrument called the Immersion GRating INfrared Spectrometer (IGRINS), the team observed the thermal glow of the exoplanet as it orbited its host star. From this instrument, they gathered information on the presence and relative amounts of different gases in its atmosphere.

Like weather and climate satellites that are used to measure the amount of water vapor and carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere, scientists can use spectrometers and telescopes, like IGRINS on Gemini South, to measure the amounts of different gases on other planets.

"Trying to figure out the composition of planetary atmospheres is like trying to solve a crime with fingerprints, Line said. A smudged fingerprint doesn't really narrow it down too much, but a very nice, clean fingerprint provides a unique identifier to who committed the crime.

Where the Hubble Space Telescope provided the team with maybe one or two fuzzy fingerprints, IGRINS on Gemini South provided the team with a full set of perfectly clear fingerprints.

And with clear measurements of both water and carbon monoxide in the atmosphere of WASP-77Ab, the team was then able to estimate the relative amounts of oxygen and carbon in the exoplanets atmosphere.

By measuring the Doppler shift illustrated in the right column of this figure, scientists can reconstruct a planet's orbital velocity in time toward or away from Earth. The strength of the planet signal as shown in the middle column, along the expected apparent velocity (navy dashed curve) of the planet as it orbits the star, contains information on the amounts of different gases in the atmosphere. Credit: P. Smith/M. Line/S. Selkirk/ASU

These amounts were in line with our expectations and are about the same as the host stars, Line said.

Obtaining ultra-precise gas abundances in exoplanet atmospheres is not only an important technical achievement, especially with a ground-based telescope, it may also help scientists look for life on other planets.

This work represents a pathfinder demonstration for how we will ultimately measure biosignature gases like oxygen and methane in potentially habitable worlds in the not-too-distant future, Line said.

What Line and the team expect to do next is repeat this analysis for many more planets and build up a "sample" of atmospheric measurements on at least 15 more planets.

We are now at the point where we can obtain comparable gas abundance precisions to those planets in our own solar system. Measuring the abundances of carbon and oxygen (and other elements) in the atmospheres of a larger sample of exoplanets provides much needed context for understanding the origins and evolution of our own gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn, Line said.

They also look forward to what future telescopes will be able to offer.

If we can do this with today's technology, think about what we will be able to do with the up-and-coming telescopes like the Giant Magellan Telescope, Line said. It is a real possibility that we can use this same method by the end of this decade to sniff out potential signatures of life, which also contain carbon and oxygen, on rocky Earth-like planets beyond our own solar system.

In addition to Line, the research team includes Joseph Zalesky, Evgenya Shkolnik, Jennifer Patienceand Peter Smith of ASUs School of Earth and Space Exploration; Matteo Brogi and Siddharth Gandhi of the University of Warwick (UK); Jacob Bean and Megan Mansfield of the University of Chicago; Vivien Parmentier and Joost Wardenier of the University of Oxford (UK); Gregory Mace of the University of Texas at Austin; Eliza Kempton of the University of Maryland; Jonathan Fortney of the University of California, Santa Cruz; Emily Rauscher of the University of Michigan; and Jean-Michel Dsertof the University of Amsterdam.

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Scientists measure the atmosphere of a planet 340 light-years away - ASU Now

Its no secret UCF loves space. From a space-themed football game to its reach for the stars motto, space is a part of the universitys fiber.

The university was founded in part to support the space industry on the Space Coast. Since then, faculty and students have participated in more than 600 NASA research projects and many more for private companies. Through it all, students have been an integral part of the effort.

For example, the International Observe the Moon Night event which drew more than 100 people to campus on Oct. 16 is supported by the student-run Astronomy Society. It was the fourth Knights Under the Stars public event this school year for the club.

Knights Under the Stars is run entirely by volunteers from Astronomy Society. Undergraduate and graduate students are able to share their passion for space by helping the public explore celestial bodies in outer space.

During the events, students who are pursuing space-related studies help faculty set up telescopes at the Robinson Observatory or other spots on campus. They help guests view through the lenses to see the cosmos.

Director of the Robinson Observatory and Physics Professor Yan Fernandez has been researching comets and asteroids since 1994. He is thrilled to see individuals from all over campus pause and take in the brilliance of the night sky.

We really enjoy showing everyone just how wondrous astronomy is. That wow moment when someone has their first up-close view of Saturns rings, or craters on the moon, or Jupiter is extremely satisfying, says Fernandez. The Astronomy Society always has a good group of students who are excited to do these outreach events. In fact, we couldnt put them on without their contribution and effort.

The Astronomy Society is based out of the Department of Physics and focuses primarily on planetary sciences. The club is made up of individuals with a love for all things space. The society hosts general body meetings where guest speakers talk about their research. The group also organizes adventure trips related to space.

The club provides a space to foster interest in space exploration and aims to inform members about the scientific side of astronomy and helps the public better understand the importance of space sciences, explains club president Catherine Millwater. She is pursuing a degree in physics (astronomy track). As an undergrad she also conducts research with the Exoplanet Research Group and at the Exolith Lab.

The Astronomy Society has been an integral part of my undergraduate experience, Millwater says. Its opened up new avenues for friends in the same field and has helped me find research opportunities.

For Mae McGonigal, another member of the society, its all about learning and sharing knowledge. She enjoys participating in the Knights Under the Stars public events from stargazing at Memory Mall to visiting the Robinson Observatory on campus.

I love being able to learn about whats going on in our solar system and sharing it, McGonigal says.

The Dark Sky Camping Trip is another highlight of the fall semester. Members grab their tents and sleeping bags to spend a night out in the fields. Without light pollution, the view of the night sky is magical, says Johnna Noel whose been a society member for three years.

It was really cool and inspiring to see the Milky Way for the first time during the camping trip, she says.

The society welcomes students from all majors.

Whether it be physics, engineering, math or science communications, or any others, youll find a home in Astronomy Society, says Parks Easter, the clubs vice president. As long as you have a passion for space you are welcome, and the benefits are fantastic. The guidance and opportunities members receive from field professionals and research mentors is invaluable.

Weather allowing, the Astronomy Societys next public event is scheduled for Wednesday Nov. 10 at dusk (approximately 7:15 p.m.) at the Robinson Observatory. Check the observatorys Facebook page or website for updates.

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For the Love of Space Student Group Hosts Multiple Space Related Events - UCF

Aside from being eccentric, high-profile billionaires Elon Musk, Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson all have one thing in common: they have invested heavily in the space technology industry, positioning themselves at the forefront of a new frontier in privately funded space exploration.

However, investment in high-tech space exploration is not simply about sending high-net-worth individuals into Earths orbit or even astronauts to Mars.

When we talk about the space economy, this refers to a broad range of products and services from aerospace design, such as the development of reusable rockets, to the production of high-tech materials and systems.

It can also include manufacturing satellites for navigation or telecoms services, research and development programmes and scientific experimentation or even soft services such as sanitisation and catering, which present their own unique challenges in the zero-gravity environment of space.

Private investment in space infrastructure companies continues to increase, with $8.9 billion invested in 2020, while Nasa's budget was $22bn last year, rising 22 per cent since the beginning of the decade.

Despite this, the commercial space industry is very much in its infancy, with most technology still in its R&D phase. It means that this investment is considered long term and high risk.

The [space] industry continues to be closely tied to government budgets and their priorities can often change

Chaddy Kirbaj

However, competition between the US and China in the fields of 5G infrastructure, robotics, artificial intelligence and space technology will create many opportunities for growth, supported by increasing investment from the private sector.

It is not only Mr Musks SpaceX that will dominate the industry other big players such as Mr Bezos Blue Origin are muscling in on the game, too.

We do not expect major gains in the short term for this industry but over the long term, there could be some impressive rewards.

Globally, the space economy is estimated to be worth $2.7 trillion in 30 years while the size of the commercial space industry is expected to triple by 2040, according to Bank of America.

In the UAE alone, private investment in the Emirates space projects has exceeded Dh22bn over the past few years. The UAE space industry created more than 1,500 job opportunities while the number of space-related businesses in the country reached 57 in 2019.

The UAE government is heavily committed to the space industry, with its National Space Strategy 2030 looking to establish the country as a global leader in the sector as evidenced by recent projects such as the Hope Probe mission to Mars and Khalifa Sat, the Earth observation satellite.

Looking to establish its own foothold in the industry, Saudi Arabia plans to give its own space programme a $2bn boost by 2030 as it aims to diversify its economy and revenue. The kingdom already has a 37 per cent stake in the Arab Satellite Communication Organisation, better known as Arabsat, which was established in 1976.

According to the Saudi Space Commission, the current return on space-related investment is 1.81 Saudi riyal ($0.48) for every one riyal.

Despite this, investing in space is a risky business as the bullish trends could change and high-cost projects may be halted due to unexpected expenses or lower-than-expected revenue. The industry continues to be closely tied to government budgets and their priorities can often change.

At the same time, digital technology and innovation are enabling reduced costs, faster production and increasing diversification. Digital transformation is accelerating at a rate far higher than anyone expected.

The way the global economy has transformed so far proves that early investors in advanced technology are often those who reap the biggest rewards further down the line.

Chaddy Kirbaj is vice director at Swissquote Bank Dubai representative office

Updated: October 25th 2021, 4:00 AM

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How early investors in the space race can reap rocket-fuelled rewards - The National

On the surface, the new video game Jett: The Far Shore tackles themes very familiar to the medium: exploration, discoveryand the depths of outer space.

Released earlier in October, it happens to come at a time when space exploration is back in the news, with high-profile billionaires engaging in a new space race even proposing to build human settlements on Mars.

But the team behind Jett, including Canadian designer Craig Adams, are consciously flipping some of the genre's tropes on their heads.

Instead, it tells a story about environmentalism, climate change, faithand the future.

"This game ... is kind of a record of myself and [co-designer] Patrick [McAllister] kind of just honestly reckoning with our concept of what's to come," he told Tapestry.

"In fact, the code name that we had for years was simply The Future."

In Jett, players take on the role of Mei, a scout who has left her home planet, ravaged by industry-fuelled pollution, in search of a new home for her people. She explores a newfound planet, its surface mostly covered by a vast ocean, aboard a tiny ship the titular Jett.

Its narrative also actively questions what space exploration might look like, even as enthusiastic discussions of space exploration have percolated back into the headlines in recent years.

Virgin Group founder Richard Branson is hoping to send rich tourists into the upper atmosphere. Amazon founder Jeff Bezos wants to move all kinds of heavy industry from Earth into space.

That's to say nothing of Tesla's Elon Musk, who dreams of going even further, to building human settlements on Mars.

It's an "irresponsible" version of a spacefaring future, according to Adams.

"Maybe there's people naive enough to buy into the singularity ofcolonizing Mars or whatever these idiots talk about. But no, we've got a finite amount of planet, and it's increasingly finite," he said.

Ted McCormick, a history professor at Concordia University in Montreal, has similar criticisms. He sees some clear similarities between the modern space race and another so-called era of discovery: early European colonialism into Africa and the Americas.

"I think a big part of the appeal [of space] is probably that it's like a clean slate, which incidentally, is a metaphor used for colonization in the early modern period, too," he told Tapestry host Mary Hines.

He added that even though we know there aren't humans on Mars, likethe Europeans encountered on their voyages, that doesn't mean we can't disturb the planet'secosystem in some way we haven't yet anticipated.

Crossing the oceans and finding a new world brought with it promises of solving "a whole bunch of sort of interconnected, but also quite distinct political and geopolitical and religious and economic problems," McCormick explained.

"Mars is no more limitless than Earth is. So I think rather than, you know, transcending current limitations, this is a sort of failure to grapple with them," he said.

Much of the language used to sell the new space programs ring similar to these cases, despite their "bold vision" on paper, he added.

"If you read what Elon Musk has to say about [colonizing Mars], is that there are going to be new investment opportunities and maybe pizza joints. It seems like we're throwing our very boldest imagination at, you know, maybe one day emulating a strip mall."

For decades, video games have plumbed the depths of exploration and, often, colonization.

In many of these games, players expand into new, wild territories by exploiting the natural resources available, and conquering rival tribes or nations.

It's even the name of an entire genre of strategy games: 4X, short for "explore, expand, exploit, exterminate." Some of the most popular games in history, like the Sid Meier's Civilization series, fall in this genre.

Leap forward into science fiction and you'll find similar structures in popular space exploration games. In No Man's Sky, for example, your character's hand-held tool doubles as a mineral extraction device as well as a laser weapon for self-defence.

For Jett, Adams deliberately avoided elements that evoked exploitation or violence, to simply try new things that haven't been seen in games as often.

"The meat and potatoes, the sort of tried and true is, you kill stuff, you stab stuff, you shoot stuff. And then you pick up some loot, and you collect it. And, yeah, obviously, that's pretty satisfying," he explained.

But if your game's storyline and characters aren't inherently violent, forcing the player to commitviolent acts can create a sense of disconnect, he explained.

Instead, Jett steers the player to do other kinds of actions. Players will juggle skimming and bounding across the ocean, encountering the world's flora and fauna, and investigating unusual mysteries about their supposed new home.

While it isn't entirely devoid of combat, you're nudged to resolve conflicts peacefully more often than not.

"The theoretical upside here is that if the mechanics that you're up to in the video game mesh with the story that you're telling, then you don't have that dissonance anymore. You don't have to sort of turn a blind eye to the video game stuff. It's all sort of one piece," said Adams.

Jett: The Far Shore also includes a strong "theological layer," as Adams describes it. Mei's people were drawn to the new planet because of an interstellar signal that her people dubbed the hymnwave. That signal became a spiritual beacon, inspiring myths and sagas.

Throughout her journey, Mei and her scouting team face several challenges some of which raise difficult questions about their faith in the hymnwaveand their journey.

It also tackles questions of people's impacts on the environment, as climate change looms large on the world, and his mind.

Despite that, he said he needed his story to have "a ray of hope," thanks in no small part to his young family.

"I think one thing is if you make the decision to summon a new human being from beyond the cosmic veil if you choose to create a child you have to maintain some minimum level of positivity. Otherwise what are you doing?" he said.

"So maybe there's a limit to how bleak I allow myself to be."

Jett: The Far Shore is available now for Windows PCs, and Sony's PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5.

Written by Jonathan Ore. Produced by Arman Aghbali.

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Jett: The Far Shore's vision of space exploration a far cry from today's billionaire space race - CBC.ca

Vermont Business Magazine NASA has awarded$28 millionto fund the next five years of research infrastructure development across 28 jurisdictions. The Established Program to Stimulate Competitive Research (EPSCoR), a part of NASA'sOffice of Stem Engagementand based out of the agency'sKennedy Space CenterinFlorida, supports science and technology research and development at colleges and universities while also funding studies in Earth science, aeronautics, and human and robotic deep space exploration all of which are disciplines critical to the NASA mission.

Started almost 30 years ago, EPSCoR focuses on 25 states and three territories, and seeks to lessen the disparity in funding between states across the nation to create an equitable competition in aerospace and aerospace-related research activities. WhileCaliforniareceives 12% of all federal research funding, all 28 EPSCoR jurisdictions combined receive less than 10%, so participating states and territories depend heavily on these research investments. NASA funds these areas so they remain competitive in the aerospace research and development field.

The EPSCoR Research Infrastructure Development award further strengthens long-term research capabilities by pledging$200,000a year to each of the 28 jurisdictions for the next half decade, increasing and diversifying technology and research development, higher education, and economic development on both a state and national level.

EPSCoR also solicits proposals for Rapid Response Research, which awards funding to researchers as they work with NASA onissues impacting the agency's mission and programs, as well as International Space Station collaborations and suborbital flight opportunities, which provide researchers the opportunity to fly mature research projects in low-Earth orbit.

Jurisdictions receiving the RID awards are:Alabama,Alaska,Arkansas,Delaware,Guam,Hawaii,Idaho,Iowa,Kansas, Kentucky,Louisiana,Maine,Mississippi,Montana,Nebraska,Nevada,New Hampshire, New Mexico,North Dakota,Oklahoma,Puerto Rico,Rhode Island,South Carolina,South Dakota,Vermont, the U.S. VirginIslands,West Virginia, andWyoming.

To learn more about EPSCoR, visit:

https://www.nasa.gov/stem/epscor/home/index.html

SOURCE WASHINGTON,Oct. 22, 2021/PRNewswire/ --NASAhttp://www.nasa.gov

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NASA Commits $28 Million to US jurisdictions, Vermont $200K a year - Vermont Biz

Nasa has announced plans to launch an uncrewed flight around the Moon in February 2022, paving the way for astronauts to once again set foot on Earths satellite.

The US space agency said on Friday that it was in the final phase of testing to send its Orion capsule on an orbit around the Moon on its Space Launch System rocket.

It announced this week that Orion was secured to the 98-metre (322ft) rocket.

Nasa said the Artemis 1 mission will pave the way for a future flight test with crew before more complex missions with astronauts on and around the Moon.

The agency will be carrying out a series of tests until February, including of the interface and the communication systems, and a dress rehearsal several weeks before the launch.

Nasa said it will set a date for the launch if the dress rehearsal is successful.

Artemis 1 will provide a foundation for human deep space exploration and demonstrate our commitment and capability to extend human existence to the Moon and beyond prior to the first flight with crew on Artemis 2, it said.

It is 52 years since Nasas space programme put humans on the Moon, beginning with the Apollo 11 mission and Neil Armstrongs famous giant steps.

A total of 12 men walked on the Moon between 1969 and 1972 when the missions were abandoned in favour of work space shuttle flights and the international space stations.

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Nasa announces uncrewed flights around the Moon to begin in February 2022 - The Guardian

Dubai: Mechanical engineer Nora Al Matrooshi is the first Arab woman to train as an astronaut.

Following the successful launch of the UAEs Hope probe mission earlier this year, Al Matrooshi, alongside Mohammed Al Mulla, was chosen from more than 4,000 candidates to join the second batch of the UAE Astronaut Programme and receive training for future exploration missions.

The Expo News Service (ENS) team caught up with the 28-year-old Emirati at Dubai Exhibition Centre (DEC) during Expo 2020 Dubais Space Week (17-23 October), in association with Mohammed Bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC) and the UAE Space Agency one of 10 Theme Weeks that will take place throughout Expo, as part of the Programme for People and Planet.

You have been chosen to be the first Arab female astronaut. How important is this to you, the UAE and all women?It is a great responsibility to be chosen as the first Arab female astronaut. The field of space exploration is not limited to a gender or a country: it is open to everyone. After seeing me, I want women in our Arab world to be encouraged to enter this sector.

Did Hazza Al Mansouri give you any advice? How did his mission inspire you?Hazza Al Mansouri and Sultan Al Neyadi are from the first batch of Emirati astronauts and, as they have been through the entire experience, we benefit from their experience. They advised strengthening the hand muscles through continuous exercise because we depend on the movement of our hands a lot in space.

Have you started your training phase? How are things going so far?With my colleague Mohammed Al Mulla, we started training at MBRSC, and we also started learning Russian. We have also received media training and will start flight training soon so we are better prepared when the training with NASA begins.

What are your hopes for your first assignment?My first mission has yet to be decided. I hope my first mission will be to the moon, so I can say Ive made one footstep on the moon.

What advice would you give girls who want to work in the space sector?My advice is to strive to achieve your goals. The opportunities to achieve them exist, and even if the opportunities do not exist, we can create them.

Did you want to be an astronaut when you were a child?I always dreamt of becoming an astronaut, ever since a teacher transformed the classroom into the surface of the moon, inspiring us with information about the Earth and the planets in our solar system.

In your opinion, what will Expo 2020 Dubai achieve for the UAE and humanity?Expo 2020 Dubai is providing the opportunity for countries to meet in one place, and for the best minds to gather in one place to discuss ideas, innovate and develop ideas. By bringing together views from so many different countries, Expo is offering a platform for humanity to work with each other and build a better future for today and for future generations.

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Emirati trainee astronaut Nora Al Matrooshi: The field of space exploration is open to everyone - Times of Oman

Like theStanford Torus, the O'Neill Cylinder, and theGeneration Ship, the Space Elevator is one of those ideas that keep popping up! Just when you think scientists and engineers have given up on it, there's a new round of theoretical studies that assert how it could be done. You might say that the Space Elevator is an idea that's too good to let go of.

Considering the benefits involved, this should come as no surprise. Granted, the cost in terms of money, resources, and time would be considerable, as are the engineering and logistical challenges involved. But for the one-time price of creating this megastructure, we would be able to realize space-based solar power, habitats in orbit, cities on the Moon and Mars, and more!

It would be no exaggeration at all to say that a Space Elevator would allow humanity to "build a road to space" (as Jeff Bezos says) or become "an interplanetary species" (as Elon Musk says). Basically, any and all plans for harnessing the resources of space, saving Earth from climate change, and settling all across the Solar System could be much easier to realize.

In aprevious article, we took a look at the history of the concept, the many studies that have been conducted, and the handful of attempts that have been made. However, there have been considerable developments in recent years that merit attention all on their own. And the exciting thing is, they just might lead to a Space Elevator in our lifetime.

Like most revolutionary ideas for space exploration that have stood the test of time, the Space Elevator can be traced to Russian/Soviet rocket scientist Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935). Known as one of the "founding fathers" of rocketry and astronautics, Tsiolkovsky is credited with the formulation of the "Rocket Equation" and the basic design from which most modern rockets are derived.

Other proposals made by Tsiolkovsky included rockets with steering thrusters, multistage boosters, rotating pinwheel space stations (which would simulate gravity), airlocks, and closed-cycle systems to provide food and oxygen for space habitats. In addition, he also conceived of a structure that reached all the way to geostationary orbit (GSO), or an altitude of 22,236 mi (35,786 km).

However, Tsiolkovsky's version of the idea called for a compression structure, which was inspired by his visit to Paris in 1895, where he witnessed the Eiffel Tower for the first time. Tsiolkovsky himself noted that this was an unrealistic idea since no known material was strong enough to support its own weight when standing so tall.

In 1959, Soviet engineerYuri Artsutanov proposed a more practical version of the idea (what he called an "Electric Train to the Cosmos") by suggesting that a station be deployed in GSO and a tension structure be deployed downward. This "tether" would connect the station to the surface and allow for payloads to be lifted into orbit using very little energy compared to conventional rockets.

This same concept was proposed by four American engineers in 1966, who independently came to the same conclusions regarding a suspension structure. Their version of the reinvented concept was known as a "Sky-Hook," which popularized the idea among aerospace engineers and scientists in the United States.

In all cases, the design called for a megastructure consisting of a base (or "Anchor") attached to a mobile platform at sea or a stationary one on land. A suspended cable (or Tether) would connect the base to a Counterweight in space, which could be a captured asteroid or a spaceport positioned beyond GSO (or a combination thereof).

Delivering payloads and people to and from space would be a series of Climbers (or cable cars), the design of which would vary based on the number of cars deployed on the tether and the design of the tether itself. These cars would be powered by means of solar panels, nuclear reactors, and wireless or direct energy transfer.

Alas, the same problem that stumped Tsiolkovsky would go on to stump proponents of suspension elevators for decades. No known material was ever strong enough to support an object in orbit.

Until very recently, every theoretical study concerning Space Elevators always hit a wall when it came to the question of what material would be used to make the tether. In all cases, the tensile strength-to-weight ratio was never high enough to ensure that the structure wouldn't break under the strains placed on it by Earth's gravity and its rotation.

As Arthur C. Clarke summarized in his address to the 30th International Astronautical Congress (IAC) in 1979, titled "The Space Elevator: 'Thought Experiment, or Key to the Universe?'":

"How close are we to achieving this with known materials? Not very. The best steel wire could manage only a miserable 31 mi (50 km) or so of vertical suspension before it snapped under its own weight. The trouble with metals is that, though they are strong, they are also heavy; we want something that is both strong and light. This suggests that we should look at modern synthetic and composite materials. Kevlar... for example, could sustain a vertical length of 124 mi (200 km) before snapping - impressive, but still totally inadequate compared with the 3100 (5000) needed."

Based on various assessments, the material involved would need to have a strength of at least 100 gigapascals (GPa) to withstand the stresses involved. For comparison, A36 structural steel has a tensile strength of around 550 MPa, or roughly 1/180th the strength required. Throughout the latter half of the 20th century, no known material (natural or synthetic) was up to the task.

When he proposed his "Electric Train," Artsutanov theorized that the cable could be built from known synthetic materials, but which had only been produced in tiny quantities so far. The initial cable, he said, would measure one millimeter at the Earth's surface and extend to an altitude of 31,068 mi (50,000 km) (around 8,700 mi or 14,000 km beyond GSO).

This extra length would provide the additional mass needed to keep the whole system under tension. From there, Artsutanov proposed using the initial cable to multiply itself until 1000 cables were clustered together. He also proposed that the cable thickness be tapered, where it was thinner at ground level and thickest at GSO to make sure the stress remained constant.

In their "Sky-Hook" proposal, Isaacs et al. also proposed that the tether's thickness would need to be thinnest at the Earth (one five-hundredth of a centimeter) at taper outwards. They also briefly considered a number of materials including quartz, graphite, beryllium, and even diamond but determined that none were strong enough.

With the development of carbon nanotubes in the 1990s, there was revitalized interest in the concept. This led David Smitherman of theNASA Advanced Concepts Office (ACO) to propose that these materials could make a space elevator feasible. He presented these findings at the Advanced Space Infrastructure Workshop held at theMarshall Space Flight Center in June of 1999.

These were also published as a report in 2000 titled "Space Elevators: An Advanced Earth-Space Infrastructure for the New Millennium." According to Smitherman, the lightest and strongest materials that were readily available were graphite-epoxy composites, but carbon nanotubes (allowing for mass production) would be far better suited:

"If the space elevator was assumed to be a tapered, solid un1iform structure using the strongest composite materials available today (Spectra or PBO graphite-epoxy), the diameter at GEO would be 1.24 mi (2 km) and would taper down to 1 mm at the Earth's surface. The mass of the tethered structure would total approximately 6010 tons. If carbon nanotubes can be made into continuous structural members, then the diameter at GEO would potentially be as small as 0.26 mm, 0.15 mm at the Earth's surface; and the total tether mass would be only 9.2 tons."

However, this was based on conservative estimates of the tensile strength required, which he claimed was roughly 62.5 GPa. Furthermore, his assessment of the strength of carbon nanotubes was rather optimistic, saying, "the actual strength of a carbon nanotube rope may be much higher than that."

This optimistic assessment was repeated by Bradley C. Edwards, who performed a feasibility study in 2000 with support from theNASA Institute for Advanced Concepts (NIAC). In his final report, titled "The Space Elevator," he offered the following assessment:

"[Carbon nanotubes] have the promise of being the strongest material yet discovered. This strength, combined with the material's low density, makes it critically important when considering the design of a space elevator. The tensile strength of carbon nanotubes has been theorized and simulated to be 130 GPa compared to steel at <5 GPa and Kevlar at 3.6 GPa. The density of the carbon nanotubes (1300 kg/m) is also lower than either steel (7900 kg/m) or Kevlar (1440 kg/m)."

In 2003, Edwards followed up on this paper with the NIAC Phase II Final Report. Once again, he expressed optimism that a Space Elevator could be built using then-available technology and stressed that everything hinged on finding a suitable material for the tether and that carbon nanotubes were the best candidate.

Alas, when these reports were published, mass production was the major stumbling block for carbon nanotubes. Simply put, these structures are "grown," not machine-produced, and are limited in length. The current record for single-tube growth still stands at just under20 inches (50 cm) and 5.5 inches (14 cm) for "forests" of them.

What's more, of those tubes that have been produced, their tensile strength has not measured up to theoretical or simulated results. Even worse, the hexagonal covalent bonds that give carbon nanotubes their high tensile strength also make them prone to fraying when placed under extreme stress.

The efforts to realize a Space Elevator effectively stalled at this point, roughly one year before graphene was isolated for the first time.

Because of the issue with carbon nanotubes, proponents of Space Elevators tended to move in one of two directions after 2003. On the one hand, some accepted that the material challenges would not be solved anytime soon and refocused their efforts on proposing elevators for other celestial bodies the most notable being theLunar Space Elevator.

Others placed their hopes on supermaterials that (until recently) were still in the theoretical stage. In recent years, many of these materials have moved from the theoretical to the production phase. Examples include nanodiamond filament and (more importantly) graphene.

Graphene is an allotrope of carbon consisting of single layers of atoms arranged in a honeycomb lattice nanostructure. The name is derived from "graphite," a crystalline form of carbon with its atoms arranged in a hexagonal structure, with the suffix -ene to indicate that the material contains numerous bonds.

The study of graphene grew from experiments with graphite oxide in the mid-19th century. By the mid-20th century, scientists began to theorize about the existence of graphene as a single-layer structure of graphite. Since the early 2000s, scientists have learned a great deal about this material's properties and potential applications.

One such individual is Adrian Nixon, a Chartered Chemist, member of theRoyal Society of Chemistry, a Strategic Advisory Board member of the international space transportation association StellarModal, and board member of the International Space Elevator Consortium ISEC (ISEC).

Nixon is also the founder and a board member of Nixene Publishing and the editor of its flagship publication the Nixene Journal. This journal is an affiliate member of the University of Manchester's Graphene Engineering Innovation Centre (GEIC) an engineering center that specializes in the rapid development and scaling-up of graphene and other 2D materials.

In March of 2021, Adrian and his colleagues were commissioned by the Foundation for the Future (a bipartisan political action committee) to create a report on the state of graphene for the U.S. Government and policymakers.

As Nixon told Interesting Engineering, graphene was considered an impossible material until a few years ago. In 2004, however, researchers at the University of Manchester isolated graphene for the first time. This led to the field of graphene and 2D materials becoming a reality and for the University of Manchester to become one of the key centers for research.

"The National Graphene Institute (NGI) does the basic scientific research, the Graphene Engineering Innovation Centre (GEIC) does the applied research and turns the science into technology and then helps bridge 'the valley of death' for taking the technology and helping it scale up to become industrially commercial," said Nixon.

Over time, new techniques emerged that can produce single-crystal graphene in sheets centimeters in scale, not just microns. Much of the credit for this goes to Alfonso Reina and his colleagues from MIT, who demonstrated how graphene could be produced using thechemical vapor deposition (CVD) method in 2009.

Since then, the CVD method, which is relatively low-cost and scalable, has developed from a batch process to a continuous industrial process. However, it was not until about a decade later that graphene was considered a possible tether material for a space elevator.

In 2021, Adrian Nixon, Debbie Nelson, and Rob Whieldon had the opportunity to brief NASA on the potential of graphene at the Commercial Space Lecture Seriesa weekly teleconference meeting where NASA and representatives from the commercial space community come together to discuss mutual concerns, challenges, and possibilities.

The presentation, titled "Impossible to Industrial in 17 years," showed how graphene had progressed from theory, to the point where it could be mass-produced, in a little over a decade and a half. As they indicated, the techniques for the industrial manufacturing of graphene had increased in both scale and speed.

At present, it has reached the point wherekilometer-scale continuous graphene fibers can be produced. And researchers at MIT have developed a continuous roll-to-roll technique that can create large sheets of graphene at a rate of around 6.5 feet (2 meters) per minute. What's more, when made as single-crystal sheets, graphene has a tensile strength of around 130 GPa, or 236 times as strong as steel.

Nixon, A., Whieldon, R., and Nelson, D., "Graphene: Manufacturing, Applications and Economic Impact." 1st ed. Manchester: Nixene Publishing (2021).

Nixon, A. "The graphene and graphite landscape: Indications of unexplored territory." Nixene Journal, Vol. 5, No. 10, 8-19 (2021).

As noted in aprevious article, the potential benefits of a space elevator are numerous and profound. According to a study conducted by the University of Colorado, the cost of sending payloads to space using a Space Elevator could be as little as$113 per lb ($250 per kg). This is five to ten times cheaper than what it costs to send payloads and crews to space today, using modern reusable rockets.

It's also seventy-four times cheaper than what it cost to go to space between 1970 and 2000, using conventional rockets and launch systems. But these benefits increase exponentially when you consider the types of payloads this will allow for, not to mention the environmental benefits of a system that does not rely on chemical propellants.

The overall architecture the ISEC is envisioning (called the "Galactic Harbor") goes beyond the creation of a single Space Elevator, though. According to their 2020 ISEC position paper, titled "Space Elevators are the Transportation Story of 21st Century," their plan is to create a family of six elevators built in pairs in three locations around the planet.

This would include two-elevator Galactic Harbor installations in the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and the Pacific Ocean. This architecture also entails the cooperative use of rockets and space elevators to create a space transportation infrastructure that would enable interplanetary travel by the second half of the century.

The details of this architecture were spelled out by Dr. Swan and his colleagues in a 2020 ISEC position paper titled "Space Elevators are the Transportation Story of 21st Century." Among the benefits they cite, a Space Elevator would:

The environmentally-friendly aspect of this architecture is paramount. By relying on electricity alone which can be provided by solar, induction, nuclear, or combination thereof the Galactic Harbor would be able to place payloads in orbit that would otherwise require dozens (or hundreds) of rocket launches.

With the growth of the commercial space sector and renewed interest in space exploration, countries like the U.S., China, India, and others are hoping to drastically increase the number of launches per year they conduct. Meanwhile, visionaries like Elon Musk and Jeff Bezos are proposing major projects (building a city on Mars, habitats in space, etc.) that would require thousands of launches per year.

A single rocket launch can release up to300 tons of carbon dioxide into the upper atmosphere, where it can remain for years. While this falls considerably short of passenger flights, which deposited a total of 900 million metric tons into the atmosphere in 2018 alone, scaling up the number of launches conducted every year will increase humanity's carbon footprint considerably.

Other "green" aspects of this technology are the way it will practical creation of technology likespace-based solar arrays. For some time, scientists have considered this to be one of the most promising means to combat global warming. By being able to lift heavy payloads to orbit for pennies on the dollar and without depositing tons of carbon in the atmosphere, Space Elevators could also help solve the climate crisis.

As for the cost of manufacturing such a megastructure, that may be the most encouraging news of all. Dr. Swan, Nixon, and colleagues estimate it can be done for a very reasonable $18 billion, less than what NASA currently spends annually. What's more, their projections indicate that production could begin before the end of the next decade. Said Dr. Nixon:

"If we push the manufacturing cost assumption down to one cent per square meter, then we come in at $3.6 billion for the manufacture of the tether. Now we have a long way to go to get there, but the experts see the future, the need for space elevators, and the [demand for] transportation infrastructure. As such, this leaves you with $14.4 billion for the rest of the Space Elevator segments."

"One key is that the material prices are falling, and the technology is accelerating towards real production techniques for industrial uses," added Dr. Swan. "This external (from SE) demand is pushing the tether production technologies. We, the SE people, love what is going on and see the material being ready for us in time for an operational date of about 2037."

* * *

There's a reason why interest in the Space Elevator has endured all this time. While it was once thought to be the stuff of science fiction, then a far-off prospect, the day is fast approaching where it will be a feasible possibility. The main stumbling block is now gone with the isolation of graphene and the development of an industrial manufacturing capacity.

Of course, there are still some challenges that stand in the way of realization. As Dr. Swan, Nixon, and Nelson all explained, they can be broken down into three categories. First, there's the issue of scale, as manufacturers still need to develop the capacity to create graphene sheets that are kilometers in length.

Second, there's the issue of speed, where production needs to be ratcheted to several meters per minute (or even per second). Third, there's the issue of quality control, where single-crystal sheets (rather than polycrystalline) of graphene need to be produced, and tests need to be devised to gauge the quality at the nanometer, meter, and kilometer scale.

But compared to the previous hurdles scientists had to deal with, these ones will be entirely surmountable with time. Already, many researchers are working on solutions to these issues. And given the rate at which things are progressing, it shouldn't be long before all the feasibility assessments agree that it can be done.

Then, as the saying goes, "the only thing left to it is to do it!"

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The Technologies That Could Finally Make Space Elevators a Reality - Interesting Engineering

It was a balmy morning in the west Texas desert when Chris Boshuizen stepped into Jeff Bezos Blue Origin rocket capsule for a journey most of us will never experience.

He waved a quick goodbye to the Amazon billionaire and took his seat next to William Shatner as the capsule door bolted shut.

For Boshuizen, this was a dream a lifetime in the making, ever since his parents took the family to Parkes, a town in his native Australia with longstanding links to astronomy. There, staring out from the same telescope that once transmitted images from the Apollo 11 Moon landing, a curiosity for the great unknown was born.

Now, 37 years later, almost 14,000km from home and strapped to a rocket launcher, the former Nasa developer found himself seated next to Shatner who captivated the world in his role as Captain James Kirk of Star Treks USS Enterprise. Also onboard were Audrey Powers, a Blue Origin executive, and Glen de Vries, chief executive of the clinical research firm Medidata Solutions.

Im a space dork, Boshuizen tells the Guardian days after his return to Earth. Ive always wanted to be an astronaut The day I learned I was flying to space, I babbled like a boy with a new toy.

After a lifetime of dreaming and 20 years of work, the physicist and engineer last week saw his boyhood dream come true, becoming the third Australian citizen to go to space.

On 9 October, Boshuizen flew from his home in San Francisco to Van Horn, a small, rural Texas town near the Mexico border. For the next five nights he would live in Bezos Astronaut Village, a state-of-the-art preflight residence.

All four crew members underwent days of extensive astronaut training, including flight simulations and zero-gravity workshops, that were designed to prepare the team for space flight in the lead-up to launch day.

From start to finish, every aspect of the journey was rehearsed and honed, from meetings with engineers and control teams to flight-suit fittings and emergency procedure training.

Boshuizen was awake before the sun rose on 13 October launch day. He admits feeling a little nervous but any anxiety was dulled by the excitement shared between the four passengers.

I had a little time to contemplate my mortality and assess the risk, he says. Ive done all the due diligence I can.

At T-45 minutes the crew departed the Astronaut Training Center to make the 10-minute journey to the launch pad site, chauffeured by Bezos. At nearly 20 metres tall and four metres wide, the New Shepard was a daunting sight in the sparse desert valley.

Boshuizen ascended the tower and walked across the air bridge to the crew capsule. The astronauts loaded into the 15-cubic-metre crew capsule to be strapped into their seats.

At T-25 min Boshuizen was the final passenger to board as last-minute safety checks prepared the team for liftoff. With just 15 minutes to launch, Bezos pulled the hatch closed as sit back and relax sounded from mission control.

Its like a submarine door and you hear this steel bang and they lock it down and you think Im stuck here, Im not getting out, Boshuizen recalled.

Finally, a 10-second countdown boomed and the rocket propelled from the ground.

It felt no worse than a steep airplane take off, Boshuizen says, dispelling the idea that the sheer force of the propulsion would rattle and shake the capsule like the movies.

As the rocket approached the Krmn Line, the internationally recognised boundary of space at 100km above mean sea level, the capsule separated from the booster and officially sailed into space.

It only takes four to seven minutes to get to space, Boshuizen says, adding: Its very, very quick.

Boshuizen took with him a 1.5kg cargo bag. Packed inside was a Lego figurine of an astronaut.

At 100km above mean sea level, the minifigure a childhood toy and throwback to his lifelong fascination with space jiggled loose and started to somersault through the cabin. Boshuizen unbuckled his seat as he, too, somersaulted in the air.

The three to four minutes spent without the pull of gravity were so natural, he says. Theres nothing strange about it at all.

The crew floated together to take a selfie, noses soon pressed against the windows to view the curve of earth.

It really got me deep in the chest, Boshuizen says. The experience was so moving the crew were sobbing.

Seeing the edge of the atmosphere a thin, brilliant sapphire shield around the planet was an uncanny experience, he adds. Closing my eyes now, I still feel that irresistible tug pulling my heart from my chest and out over the edge of the world.

Ive watched every movie, Ive seen every astronaut talk about space and photos of the curvature of the Earth in light of the atmosphere, the blackness of space, and I realise when I got up there those words are just completely inadequate in describing what I saw.

It was more beautiful and more dazzling and more frightening than I ever imagined.

The descent back to Earth was as quick as the ascent. As the capsule hit the atmosphere, Boshuizen says, he felt like a stone being thrown into a river, splashing at the surface and then floating gently to the bottom.

Just over 10 minutes after launching, the crew touched back to Earth in a cloud of dust, at 9.59am CDT.

First to meet them was Bezos, opening the hatch to the applause of waiting family and friends. Boshuizen was third to disembark as champagne bottles were popped and Bezos announced: Welcome to a very small club.

Boshuizen now holds the sought-after title of being among fewer than 600 people who have seen the Earth from space.

After achieving his childhood goal, Boshuizen has a new aim: to make getting to space as easy as catching a bus.

The idea of living and working in space will become a reality, he says. The first 60 years of space exploration were the domain of governments now space has become the domain of ordinary citizens.

In just over half a century, humankind has completely changed. Things that used to take an entire country can now be done by you and me.

Addressing critics, the astronaut is quick to dispel assertions that trips like these are nothing more than space tourism.

Its interesting seeing human spaceflight start with a joke and people deprecating it as just tourism because they dont understand whats coming next, he says.

This is not tourism, its the beginning of something really powerful. I think we are just around the corner of seeing what human spaceflight can really mean for us

Human space exploration [can] look weird and scary and strange to people who dont understand, and thats OK. My job is to hold a steady course and and not give up and keep building things that I think are valuable for you for the planet.

Its the beginning of something really big and I think if you fast forward 50 years were going to look back at 2021 as the year it all began. This is the space race version 2.0.

Its something the venture capitalist is particularly passionate about. We must go to space if we are to save this Earth If we have more information about our changing planet, we can be stewards of the planet. You cant fix something if you dont know about it.

Space has always been present, the stars shine down on us as they did our ancestors [it] begins a mere 60 miles above us but for most of human history it has remained tantalisingly out of reach. One day quite soon entire generations will look down on the Earth as the first astronauts did and fall in love again with our great blue planet, one by one.

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How it feels to go into space: 'More beautiful and dazzling and frightening than I ever imagined' - The Guardian

An old saying among foreign policy circles stated that while the kingdom of heaven runs on righteousness the kingdoms of the Earth run on oil. However, because of concerns about climate change, the fracking boom in the United States and the discovery of oil and gas deposits offshore of the State of Israel the old reality no longer applies.

The new reality is that the kingdoms of the Earth run on high technology. Few countries have moved so quickly to adapt as the United Arab Emirates. The UAE, as part of a shift toward high tech, has started its own space program. In a few short years, the Arab gulf state has become a major space power.

The UAE is pursuing a strategy that includes developing its own space capabilities and seeking both international and commercial partners for its various space missions. The UAE is also nurturingits own indigenous commercial space sector. The strategy has met with considerable success.

TheHope Mars probewas developed in house, assembled by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado, Boulder and was launched on board a Japanese rocket. The Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre recentlyreleased a treasure trove of datafrom the probe for anyone to evaluate and use. The data show, among other things, how Martian atmospheric gasses interact with each other and with solar radiation.

The Rashid lunar rover will be launched on a SpaceX Falcon 9 and will be taken to the lunar surfaceon a Japanese lander. The Rashid will land on the Lacus Somniorum region of themoons near side in late 2022.

The UAE intends to mount a mission to themain asteroid belt in 2028. The probe, which has not been named yet, will conduct gravity-assist maneuvers at Venus and Earth, arriving at the main belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter in 2030. It will fly by seven asteroids before landing on another one in 2033. The University of Colorado Boulders Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics will be a key scientific partner.

Finally, the UAE and Israel havesigned an agreementpledging cooperation, among other projects, in the Beresheet 2 moon mission. The agreement further cementsrelations between the two countries, which have become commercial and defense allies, in the wake of the Abraham Accords.

The UAE hasits own astronaut corps, including astronauts are Hazzaa Al Mansoori, Sultan Al Neyadi, Nora Matrooshi and Mohammed Al Mulla. Al Mansoori has already flown a week-long mission to the International Space Station, riding to the orbiting laboratory on a Russian Soyuz. Al Matrooshi is the first Arab woman astronaut. She has expressed interestin being included in a future Artemis mission to the moon.

Besides a growth of technology, the UAE-based National News reports that the UAEs space program has sparked a space culture in the Arab gulf state. The Emirates space culture has been manifested in a growth of astrophotography and other visual art.

The UAEs space program, and its power to positively affect that countrys economy and culture could serve as a model for other countries. NASA and the new space commercial sector have certainly proven to be a positive influence in the United States, a country much in need of something to feel good about.

Too often, developments in the Islamic world have proven to be tragic. The recent takeover of Afghanistan by the Taliban is a case in point, with the resulting collapse of that countrys economy and the chronic human rights violations, especially against women.

The UAEs turn toward technology development and education harkens back to the early history of the Islamic world, when that region was a center of science, mathematics and medicine. The fact that STEM in the Arab gulf state has been of benefit to women should not go unnoticed. Besides Nora Matrooshi,Sara Al Amiriwas recently elevated to become the UAEs first Minister of Advanced Science and the chairperson of that countrys space agency.

The UAE was an early signatory of theArtemis Accords, an alliance of states pledging cooperation in the movement of humankind to the moon, Mars and beyond. Thus, the Arab gulf state will be a major force in the exploration of space.

MarkR.Whittingtonis the authorofspace explorationstudiesWhy is It So Hard to Go Back to the Moon?as well asThe Moon, Mars and Beyond,andWhy is America Going Back to the Moon?He blogs atCurmudgeons Corner.

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The UAE is becoming a major space power | TheHill - The Hill