Monthly Archives: February 2021

Editors note: This essay is the third in a series of eight articles, Maritime Strategy on the Rocks, that examines different aspects and implications of the recently released tri-service maritime strategy, Advantage at Sea: Prevailing with Integrated All-Domain Naval Power. Be sure to read thefirst article and second article. We thank Prof. Jon Caverley of the U.S. Naval War College for his assistance in coordinating this series.

Given the many nakedly self-serving, politically desperate, and anti-liberal foreign policy moves of the lame duck administration of former President Donald Trump, the incoming team of President Joe Biden might understandably treat the recently released tri-service maritime strategy in a similar fashion to Trumps proposed 2022 budget: with skepticism. Americas sea services have been at the forefront of the Trump administrations last-minute national security maneuvers with the December releases of both a new 30-year shipbuilding plan and the new maritime strategy. Trump loved talking about building ships (although he did little to advance this goal), shattering precedents by sending his National Security Advisor to campaign on naval construction in battleground states and openly suggesting that the Navy consider his political prospects when choosing to build its new frigate in Wisconsin. But, despite this, the new administration should take the new strategy document seriously, as the three naval services have produced a strikingly liberal vision.

By liberal, we do not mean Democratic (or even democratic; there is no mention of democracy in the strategy), but rather, the suite of policies and beliefs associated with the long term and largely bipartisan American approach to foreign policy. While the Pentagon prefers the term rules-based to liberal to describe this international order, both terms are synonymous with the system of alliances, free trade, open global commons, conflict management, international institutions, and the more than-occasional bout of coercion that has been central to Americas approach to international politics since the end of World War II. The Biden administration has clearly signaled its intent to steer American foreign policy back in this direction as an intrinsic component to competition with China, reacting to Trumps internationally confrontational America First policy.

Granted, with the strategys focus on great-power competition, there is plenty of muscular realism in the document, especially when compared to the last one, which was published in 2015. For cultural, budgetary, and strategic reasons, the Navy has always prioritized an offensive sea control and power projection approach to the Western Pacific as its core mission as opposed to a more presence- and denial-focused fleet deployed around the world. The Marine Corps signature initiative is deploying newly developed Marine Littoral Regiments to fight in actively contested maritime spaces in the Pacific. Nonetheless, we argue that the same forces posited by the strategy (and its associated shipbuilding plan) for a Sino-American slugfest can also serve a less directly confrontational approach to great-power competition, and indeed, the strategy clearly lays out a liberal logic for seapower. Barring catastrophic war, competition with China will likely take place around the world over goods and issues held in common across many states. Managing conflict in this system, providing public goods, and protecting sea lanes is facilitated by building a larger U.S. Navy.

More Ships Allow for More System Management

Institutions write strategy documents, in no small part, to plead for more resources, selling their centrality to U.S. security. But much of the maritime services case, however self-serving, happens to be true, backed up by data on 270 interstate maritime conflicts. The data show that U.S. naval power correlates to a strong downward effect on the frequency and escalation of maritime conflicts (Figure 1) and that maritime conflicts are increasing relative to territorial disputes. The future of conflict is likely to be maritime. This is especially the case if one holds the liberal belief that great-power competition is as much a matter of international system maintenance, conflict management, and public goods provision as it is direct military confrontation between superpowers.

The most likely friction points between China and the United States will be at sea, in the air, and in space: the global commons. China is involved in 10 ongoing maritime disputes (Russia in nine). But that leaves 77 disputes around the world 80 percent that do not involve a great-power opponent of the United States. Actively managing, if not resolving, these potential crises is an important part of maintaining a liberal order, making the world safer for commerce, and making other states more amenable to U.S. leadership. A hallmark of U.S. liberal grand strategy is dispute resolution and conflict management, and in the modern era, these clashes occur more often at sea than on land. Territorial disputes (e.g., Kashmir and Nagorno-Karabakh) have declined over the past two centuries, but contentious maritime claims (e.g., the Spratly Islands and the Aegean Sea) have increased significantly.

One major reason why maritime disputes will continue to increase is climate change. Unlike the most recent National Security Strategy, National Defense Strategy, and National Military Strategy, the sea services explicitly acknowledge its existence. The maritime strategy observes that climate change threatens coastal nations with rising sea levels, depleted fish stocks, and more severe weather and also claims that [c]ompetition over offshore resources, including protein, energy, and minerals, is leading to tension and conflict. Both statements are on firm empirical ground. Data show that climate volatility, especially variability in rainfall, exacerbates the risks for militarized clashes at sea. Warmer oceans increase scarcities in many fisheries stocks by changing migration patterns, increasing fish mortality rates, and changing water acidity levels, and thus, we may see greater escalation over contested fishing grounds in the future. The use of maritime militias by countries like China, Vietnam, and the Philippines to defend fishing grounds is not surprising as states expand security measures to protect their citizens access to fish stocks.

There are, of course, many causes for the relative increase in disputes at sea, but it is undeniable that the rise in maritime disputes correlates to a decline in U.S. naval tonnage as a percentage of the worlds navies (Figure 1). Rising sea powers as diverse as Russia, Egypt, Indonesia, India, Iran, and North Korea have sought to expand sovereignty over maritime spaces, increasing risks for future conflicts. These regional conflagrations are risky, too, because major power wars often arise through alliance ties and the failure of extended deterrence.

The data show that, while maritime crises rarely escalate to open military conflict, naval power is the only maritime capability that deters escalation. No matter how capable or large a state is in terms of broader measures of power, naval forces are essential for this task.

Erik Gartzke and Jon Lindsay argue in a forthcoming article in this series that states that build more surface ships and submarines and challenge their neighbors maritime sovereignty claims fight in more militarized conflicts. By this logic, naval investments by China, Japan, and Taiwan would increase the risks for clashes at sea, and these have occurred. But, rather than the growth of individual fleets, it is the regional naval balance, and the role played by the United States in it, that matters most. Senkaku/Diaoyu conflicts have not resulted in war largely due to naval parity between these actors and the capability balance that the United States offers. The data show, more generally, that maritime disputes between evenly matched naval powers are more likely to be settled through peaceful negotiations. This supports the strategys claim that [a]ctivities short of war can achieve strategic-level effects. The maritime domain is particularly vulnerable to malign behavior below the threshold of war and incremental gains from malign activities can accumulate into long-term advantages. Plenty of evidence exists to support a larger fleet regardless of who is in the White House.

Figure 1: U.S. Naval Power Share (based on total tonnage) and Annual Number of Ongoing ICOW Maritime Claims.

The maritime strategy envisions an expansion of the fleet to concentrate on the high-end fight, particularly against China. The services primary means of doing so is what the Navy calls Distributed Military Operations: using larger numbers of smaller combatants (manned and unmanned) to mass overwhelming combat power and effects at the time and place of our choosing. This capability is unlikely to be used. As in the Cold War, a direct conflict between China and the United States would be incredibly dangerous but also incredibly unlikely. The hot portion of the Cold War unfolded in locations where the two superpowers didnt face each other directly: not only in wars like Vietnam and Afghanistan but in competitions for influence with countries like Egypt, India, and Yugoslavia. Unlike the Cold War, China and the United States appear somewhat more evenly matched in the economic, ideological, and security tools they can employ in a renewed superpower competition over proxies.

For all the focus on marshaling a larger, lighter, and cheaper Navy for a major conflict at sea, these ships are fungible and can do much of the day-to-day management of the maritime commons conflict de-escalation, protection of trade routes, and humanitarian operations as well as power projection against smaller opponents. Similarly, the Marines divestment from heavy armor will make the Corps more agile in a Western Pacific fight but also optimize it for rapid deployment globally. Pushing white-hulled Coast Guard vessels further from the United States may help manage crisis without escalation.

The Liberal Services?

But beyond the larger number of ships, the roles the maritime services assign to themselves hew closely to many tasks a Biden administration will likely call for. A fleet can be a profoundly liberal foreign policy tool for better or worse and this is reflected in the language of the strategy.

The strategy describes five lines of effort for operating across the competition continuum with the term combat only found in the final one. The first, advance global maritime security and governance, declares an intent to operate with allies, partners, other U.S. agencies, and multinational groups to maintain a free and open maritime environment and uphold the norms underpinning our shared security and prosperity. One would be hard-pressed to encapsulate the logic of liberalism and collective security in a shorter sentence. If you are mad about Trump damaging Americas standing in the world and plan on restoring U.S. reputation and credibility around the globe, you are going to need a navy.

The second line of effort doubles down on alliances and partnerships. Throughout the strategy, the services employ the term allies more times than China. Naval diplomacy and reassurance of smaller states have long been an essential aspects of keeping alliances together. Beyond formal allies, the United States and China are clearly locked in a competition over who can provide the better package of economic and security benefits to small but strategically located states. All three maritime services can play a constructive and largely non-escalatory role. Evidence exists that military presence and coordination among states enhances deterrence.

The third line of effort, confront and expose malign behavior, assigns great political power to the services ability to provide transparency to international politics around the world. The practice of international naming and shaming, while optimistic about its effect on international politics, is a tool firmly associated with a liberal approach.

Perhaps even more striking for a liberal reader is the strategys mention of the International Maritime Organization. Not many other recent Pentagon documents give such prominence to an arm of the United Nations. A new administration should pair this approach with a renewed effort to ratify the Law of the Sea Convention given its effective record in preventing and deescalating maritime conflicts. After all, maritime conflicts often occur between democratic countries, and thus, the United States must be prepared to mediate maritime clashes between allies to keep both alliances and the liberal international order intact.

Maritime Dilemmas for Liberals

To be sure, while the strategy and the fleet itself contain the components of a liberal approach to security, Democrats may take a different approach than the one laid out in the strategy. Ships are not cheap. The Trump administrations proposal calls for an 86 percent increase in Navy ship numbers and a 44 percent increase in shipbuilding funds over the next five years. Then again, the Coast Guard, perhaps the only popular part of Homeland Security among progressives, could be boosted outside of the defense budget in ways more acceptable to congressional Democrats. The strategys advocacy for recapitalizing an undersized American merchant fleet that can be mobilized for wartime logistics also seems an easier sell. And lets not forget that many of these new ships will be built in battleground states such as Wisconsin and Maine.

Beyond budget concerns, the Navy continues to struggle with managing basic dilemmas and will need strong and careful civilian leadership from the new White House and Office of Secretary of Defense. These dilemmas were not solved by the Navy or Trump, and now they fall squarely in the new administrations lap.

First, the Navy has yet to figure out how to balance between operating day-to-day and preparing for war, the age-old dilemma of a great-power fleet. A large naval force capable of coalescing in a high-end fight is also a flexible one. The new administration will need to referee between them. Using the fleet for system management as part of a liberal foreign policy can be effective for maintaining peace abroad, but that will entail a tradeoff in developing and conserving decisive combat power for deterring (and ultimately fighting) a great power like China. The Navy is currently suffering from severe overuse, and an activist, liberal foreign policy will need to suppress its appetite.

Second, the strategy claims ready, forward-deployed naval forces will accept calculated tactical risks and adopt a more assertive posture in our day-to-day operations without defining what these risks might be. Increased deterrence rarely comes for free. These risks can also lead to crisis instability and escalation. The Navy must be honest with civilian leaders about what this entails, and these leaders must take the time to understand them.

Third, both the strategy and Trumps 30-year shipbuilding plan bet heavily on unmanned systems. The Navy and Marine Corps accept that unmanned systems will play an important role in the future fleet but have struggled to incorporate them into concepts of operations or decide what capabilities need to be placed on these platforms. Moreover, the services have found themselves caught between an enthusiastic Office of the Secretary of Defense and a skeptical Congress. While the wartime role for these weapons seems somewhat apparent, how unmanned systems contribute to the more liberal, system maintenance role envisioned by the strategy remains a mystery.

Finally, while the data make clear the role a fleet can play in conflict management, analysis fails to support one core aspect of systems management favored by presidents from both parties as well as the Navy: freedom of navigation operations. The maritime forces and their bosses will have to come up with more creative ways to compete in the gray zone.

Conclusion

A strong naval service operating routinely around the world has historically been viewed as the prerequisite for a liberal international order. Data support this idea, showing that maritime conflicts between countries are less frequent and managed more effectively when the U.S. achieves sea power dominance and helps to maintain naval parity in allies conflicts. Even eloquent advocates of moderating U.S. foreign policy ambition view the Navy as the military capability most essential for protecting Americas national interests. Its no coincidence that the cover for Barry Posens book Restraint features three U.S. surface ships on the cover.

The Biden administration should not confuse Trumps enthusiasm for ships with a coherent vision of the naval forces role in his America First approach to the world. The writers of this tri-service strategy certainly did not. Trump wasnt much of a globalist, but curiously, the maritime strategy published at the end of his administration is well-suited to support a liberal approach to international politics.

Jonathan D. Caverley is a professor in strategic and operational research at the United States Naval War College and a research scientist in political science and security studies at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. His views do not reflect official positions of the United States Naval War College, Navy, or Department of Defense.

Sara McLaughlin Mitchell is the F. Wendell Miller Professor of political science at the University of Iowa. She is co-director of the Issue Correlates of War Project.

Image: U.S. Navy (Photo by Mass Communication Spc. 3rd Class Will Hardy)

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A Liberal Case for Seapower? - War on the Rocks

The essayist and novelist on his latest book, Indian liberalism, the Hindu Rashtra and the evolving Western intellectual establishment

Pankaj Mishra is almost unique among Indian authors in having reflected consistently on modern history, contemporary politics and literary cultures, not only in India and South Asia but also in China, Anglo-America, Europe, West Asia, Southeast Asia and North Africa. His latest book, Bland Fanatics: Liberals, Race and Empire, is a collection of many of his important political essays and polemical pieces, published over the two decades since 9/11. In an interview, he discusses his current preoccupations.

I think the word liberal triggers hostility in India for reasons specific to Indias culture wars. Many of Modis critics claim to be liberal. They may not subscribe to many of classical liberalisms precepts, such as free trade. But they use the word and invoke its morally prestigious Western associations to present themselves as embodiments of a kind of udaarta tolerance and acceptance of different world-views.

For right-wingers, however, the word stands in for an English-speaking metropolitan class whose cultural hegemony they are fighting to overthrow. I think we should examine the genealogy of this word in India more closely, and who deploys it and for what reason. Its worth remembering that Nehru himself did not repeatedly claim to be a liberal in the way his present-day followers do. Nor did most significant figures of the freedom movement. I am not sure that many intellectuals and activists who work primarily in Indian languages describe themselves as liberal.

Yes, success and honour are almost exclusively reserved for those who flatter Western self-images and boosterish discourses prevalent in the West. I was often accused of making a living by running down India internationally when all I did was point to some serious problems confronting a vast majority of Indians. Ironically, those talking up the New India were being lavishly rewarded by the Western establishment that had bought into a fantasy of India as a great democracy, economic superpower, counterweight to China etc.

The propagandists are now in retreat, partly because the Western establishment has lost its old certainties in recent years, and spaces have opened up for discourses whether about imperialism and slavery or global capitalism, inequality and our ruined environment that it either suppressed or ignored. When The New York Times, which carried articles about the need for a new Anglo-American empire not so long ago, starts questioning with its 1619 project the accepted narrative of American freedom and democracy, the mainstream does not seem wholly resistant to some long overdue corrections.

Ideas often cross-pollinate in ways that would bewilder those who hold fast to moralising narratives about the rise of liberal democracy and Hindu Rashtra. The Nazis got many of their ideas about ethnic and racial supremacism from that great exemplar of liberal democracy: the U.S.. J.S. Mill assumed that Indians were a barbarian people, unfit for self-rule.

One reason why fascist mysticism remains potent is that it appears to address some stubborn pathologies of modern life alienation, isolation, anomie, powerlessness. Progress has become an Indian ideology in recent decades. But it is far from resolving (and might have aggravated) fundamental problems in the relationship of the self to the world, and the experiences of love, fear, hatred, and grief that are so often traumatic.

People will continue to seek palliatives for their pain and bewilderment in a variety of sources from Mein Kampf and QAnon to Aurobindos supra-mental consciousness.

I think the left in America is a very marginal force, shut out of both mainstream politics and journalism, despite, or perhaps because of, its formidable intellectual firepower. As such, it has the unique freedom to mount strong critiques of the establishment.

The new Barack Obama memoir is very revealing in this regard. He is obviously smarting over this tiny but intellectually vigorous lefts critique of his own establishment instincts. But the lefts critique is persuasive because Obama did little with the great energy for change that had exalted him to power; he missed the chance to boldly reform a corrupt and dysfunctional system, deferred too much to Wall Street and the old political and business elites, and ended up paving the way for Trump.

After that trauma, the left is naturally more suspicious of the deeply networked Democratic Party apparatchiks who are now in power and promise to restore normalcy. And lets not forget that nearly 75 million Americans voted for Trump, and Biden and Harriss victory is far from emphatic.

I feel that I have reached the end of the kind of writing that I began in the late 90s, with the nuclear tests and Kashmir, and then extended to the origins of 9/11, the war on terror, China and the fate of liberalism. In retrospect, those writings and the subsequent histories I published were my own attempt to understand a world that seemed to be dramatically changing and indeed unravelling, but which the triumphant assumptions of the intellectual and journalistic mainstream had made more or less incomprehensible.

Now, of course, the steady intellectual and political deterioration I wrote about, whether in India or in the U.S. and Britain, is no longer something that I have to repeatedly demonstrate to a sceptical readership. It is too painfully obvious. So, yes, it is time for me to explore other, more imaginative and personally fulfilling modes of writing.

The interviewer is an intellectual historian at the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies, New Delhi.

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Nehru did not repeatedly claim to be a liberal: Pankaj Mishra - The Hindu

"Follow the science" is what progressive Democrats demand when the science suits them.

And yet, like Pavlov's salivating dog and the meat powder, a whiff of New York Gov. Andrew Cuomo prompts a predictable, conditioned response: a barking chorus of "whatabout whatabout" Ted Cruz or other Republicans.

There are plenty of Republicans to choose from, but as Cuomo began to publicly dissolve, it was Cruz, the conservative senator of Texas, who served up an awkward feast of himself. Cruz flew to sunny Cancun while his constituents were suffering and dying without power during a killer cold snap. He made it worse with a weasel trick, shifting the blame to his family for his jetting off to Mexico. His sin was about optics. And he deserves to pay for it.

But it wasn't Cruz who ordered senior citizens infected with COVID-19 back into nursing homes. Cuomo did that. It wasn't Cruz who allegedly manipulated the numbers of nursing home deaths, now under federal investigation, while writing a book about his admirable handling of the health pandemic. Cuomo did that.

Cuomo's decisions regarding COVID-19 patients allegedly harmed thousands of seniors. Letitia James, Democrat and New York attorney general, issued a report on the undercounting of deaths. The New York Post reported on an admission of a cover-up, and investigations began amid Democrat vs. Democrat bullying and shrieking.

But is this just a New York fight or does it suggest a larger truth about where American politics is heading?

The progressives aren't merely influencing Democratic politics. In the deep blue states, they've taken control as the old party apparatus crumbles. The violent summer protests were about flexing muscle. Liberal Democratic mayors cowered and were overwhelmed in New York, Chicago, Minneapolis, Los Angeles, Portland, Oregon and Seattle.

Progressive muscle now is about taking out Cuomo, which is critical to protect the ambitions of their real champion, Vice President Kamala Harris. Prior to Cuomo's meltdown, oddsmakers already were evaluating a Cuomo vs. Harris matchup in the 2024 presidential primary.

"Cuomo is in trouble," David Marcus, the New York correspondent for the conservative Federalist site and other publications, including the New York Post, explained on my podcast, "The Chicago Way."

"(Rep. Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez) of New York called for an investigation. Democrats called for impeachment, taking away Cuomo's powers. It's a mess. The media is trying to protect him, but that's hard to do."

What Cuomo allegedly did to the seniors sentenced to death in New York nursing homes is his doing, his fault and his sin. His alone. Make no mistake about this. He deserves what's coming.

And what is happening to Cuomo is what happened to Democratic mayors in big cities during those "mostly peaceful" protests: The old Democrats are being devoured by the progressives who've taken control of urban politics.

"The Democratic Party in big cities is no longer the big machine that it once was, yet Cuomo still operates as if he's a boss of Democratic machine politics," Marcus said on "The Chicago Way."

"But this is a post-machine political age."

Indeed. It is a truth learned firsthand by every liberal Democratic big-city mayor during the summer, as their downtown business districts were looted and burned. The mayors might be liberal, but they're no match for the energy of the progressives. And the landscape that nurtured the old Democratic bosses, like the Daleys in Chicago, like Cuomo's own father, Mario, in New York, has shifted.

"Progressive groups like the 'justice Democrats,' are doing an end run around the party machines that no longer have the patronage operations that they once did," Marcus said. "And Cuomo's learning that. He's not the boss in the party the way his dad was in the 1980s. The politics are different.'"

What's changed is that the old bulls lost control. The new Democratic patronage is found in the public workers unions, the public-school teachers and others. They flexed their muscle in the summer. Now they want to use it some more. And they'll use it to rid the political world of possible rivals to Harris.

Until he began to collapse, Cuomo had been propped up by much of the media, by CNN in particular, in those painful, cloying interviews with his brother Chris, and by other outlets.

The governor was even given an Emmy for his handling of COVID-19 news conferences, an anti-Trump mannequin. But that's over.

Joe Biden is president. Cuomo fights for his life. Harris waits for an opening. Once the meat powder was in the air, the rest was inevitable political biology, where only the strong survive.

And that's science too, isn't it?

John Kass is a columnist for the Tribune Content Agency.

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Gov. Cuomo, his liberal critics, and the science of political decay - theday.com

Are conservatives more afraid of threats than liberals? Political psychologists have long found evidence that people on the right are more sensitive to scary stuff, on average, than people on the left, a basic psychological difference thought to drive some political disagreements between the two groups.

But new research suggests that's overly simplistic.

In a new international study, conservatives and liberals both responded to threats but they responded more strongly to different kinds of threats. And to make matters more complex, those responses don't always map nicely onto the political divide, or stay consistent from nation to nation.

Related: Why did the Democratic and Republican parties switch platforms?

"This link between threat and conservative beliefs, or conservative ideology, is just not simple," said study leader Mark Brandt, a psychology professor at Tilburg University in the Netherlands. "It depends on a lot of different things. It depends on the type of threats that we study; it depends on how we measure political beliefs and what kind of political beliefs that we measure; and it depends on the precise country that we're looking at."

Let's rewind to 2012, well before the 2016 election and the dramatic political fallout that's happened since. That year, psychologists reported that conservatives responded more strongly to scary images than liberals did on a basic biological level: They literally started sweating more. This tracked with earlier research suggesting that conservatives were more prone to disgust, on average, than liberals. Multiple studies reached similar conclusions.

It made for a neat story. People physiologically prone to fear and disgust would pay more attention to threats and thus turn to a conservative political ideology that promises safety and the status quo. But there was a lingering problem. Seventy-five percent of the research cited on the topic in one influential 2003 meta-analysis was done in the United States, and only 4% was conducted outside of Western democracies. Another problem? The definition of "threat" in most studies on the topic was usually narrow, focused on threats of violence or terrorism. Political persuasion was often defined narrowly too, without accounting for differences between social ideology and economic ideology.

"Many of the studies cited in support of this conclusion use threat measures or manipulations that exclusively tap threats emphasized by conservative elites," said Ariel Malka, a political psychologist at Yeshiva University who was not involved in the new study, referring to politicians and media figures.

This is a problem because the link between threats and politics can run both ways. For example, a recent POLITICO poll found that 70% of Republicans thought the 2020 election was marred by fraud, compared with only 10% of Democrats. Before the election, only 35% of Republicans thought the election would be fraudulent, and 52% of Democrats did. The post-election shift makes it pretty clear that people's fears of fraud are driven by party affiliation and messaging from party elites, not the other way around. If studies on threats focus on fears usually emphasized by conservatives, they're likely to find a connection between threat and conservatism.

Brandt and his colleagues wanted to broaden the scope. They turned to a dataset called the World Values Survey, which asked people from 56 different countries and territories about their perceptions of six different categories of threats, including war, violence, police violence, economics, poverty and government surveillance. Economic threats were broad-based worries about the job market and availability of education; poverty threats were more personal concerns about being able to put food on the table or pay for medical care. The survey also captured people's political beliefs in nuanced ways, ranging from whether they called themselves conservative or liberal to their individual opinions on immigration, government ownership of industry and abortion. Data on 60,378 participants was collected between 2010 and 2014.

The results were messy.

Economic fears were slightly associated with some left-wing beliefs, but not all. For example, a fear of personal poverty was linked with more acceptance of government ownership of industry, but fears about the wider economy weren't. The fear of war or terrorism was sometimes associated with right-wing beliefs, but reporting worries about violence within one's neighborhood was associated with left-wing beliefs, as was fear of police violence.

Related: How to actually stop police brutality, according to science

And there were many unexpected findings. The threat of war or terrorism was linked to left-wing beliefs on government ownership, for example, and economic worries were linked to left-wing beliefs on social issues. The threat of personal poverty was associated with right-wing views on social issues and on protectionist job policies that would reserve the highest-paid jobs for men and non-immigrants. What was clear was that threats and right-wing beliefs weren't married. There were six statistically significant associations between certain threats and conservative beliefs, nine associations between other threats and liberal beliefs, and 15 potential relationships between threat and belief that didn't turn out to correlate at all.

Making matters more complicated, the relationships between ideology and threats weren't consistent from nation to nation. For example a fear of war or terrorism was associated with left-wing beliefs in Kazakhstan just as strongly as a fear of war or terrorism was associated with right-wing beliefs in the United States. Likewise, Brandt told Live Science, experiencing the threat of poverty leads to left-wing beliefs in the U.S., but in Pakistan and Egypt, the threat of poverty is linked to right-wing belief.

If you look only at the United States, the researchers report, it's true that right-wing beliefs and a fear of war or terrorism go hand-in-hand. But expanding to other threats shows an inconsistent mix of associations. In other words, even in the U.S., conservatism and a physical sensitivity to threats aren't clearly linked.

It's not clear from the study which comes first, the political belief or the focus on a threat. It's possible that experiencing a particular threat moves people to adopt a certain political belief, but it's also possible, as with voter fraud in the 2020 election, that people adopt a political identity first and focus on specific threats as a result.

The new work is likely to be influential, said Bert Bakker, a political scientist at the University of Amsterdam who studies the relationship of personality and political ideology. Bakker was not involved in the current study, but his work has shown that the difference in disgust between conservatives and liberals may also be overstated.

"I am less certain about what we know about this now than I was a couple years ago," Bakker told Live Science.

It's still possible that people gravitate toward political beliefs for deep-seated psychological reasons, Brandt said.

"It's definitely plausible that people experience some threat or some event and then adopt this attitude," he said. "But what 'this attitude' is and the best one to address that threat might be different depending on the particular context."

There may also be other psychological reasons to associate with a political group, Malka noted. People have a social need to fit in, and may adopt attitudes that help them do so. Future research should focus more on how pre-existing political affiliation leads people to focus on different threats, he told Live Science.

Originally published on Live Science.

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Conservatives aren't more fearful than liberals, study finds - Livescience.com

A handful of collegeshave debuted health-related programs during the pandemic, and Salem College just joined their ranks.

The smallwomens liberal arts college in Winston-Salem, N.C., announced Wednesday that it will begin to offer three new health-related majors -- health sciences, health humanities and health advocacy and humanitarian systems -- beginning next fall. The college will also unveil a curriculum revamp that centers on leadership and health.

Despite what the announcements timing would suggest, Salems curricular changes were in the works long before the pandemic roiled colleges last spring. Susan Henking, interim president, said that the college's board and the campus worked together todevelop the new curriculum.

Several years ago, the college'sBoard of Trustees sought to differentiate Salem from other liberal arts institutions. Choosing a focus area helped the college resist the homogenization of American higher education, Henking said.

Its critical for liberal arts institutions to differentiate themselves and show students why the education they offer is relevant, said Rick Hesel, principal at Art & Science Group, a higher education consulting firm.

If they dont, I think their survival in the long term is in question, Hesel said. Weve done a number of studies on the liberal arts, and just the mere words give institutions a disadvantage, we found.

Salem is not the first liberal arts institution to try to break away from the pack. Agnes Scott College in Decatur, Ga., has its students focusing on leadership and global dynamics through a signature experience program called SUMMIT. Mills College in Oakland, Calif., also created a signature experience program several years ago.

Health is a particularly good focus area, Hesel said. Many colleges are currently looking to expand their health care and health-related programs. Saint Josephs University in Philadelphia recently announced a plan to acquire the University of the Sciences and along with it a slate of health sciences programs. A few years ago, Wheeling University in West Virginia gutted its liberal arts programs but left its health-care programs intact.

The handwriting is on the wall, Hesel said.We have an aging population.Theres a genomics revolution going on that provides encouraging promise for health care, so a lot of places are moving in this direction.

But many colleges are only looking to add health-care programs, and Salem is distinct in choosing to incorporate health into all its offerings, Hesel added.

Before it settled on health leadership, the board examined county-level data that answered questions about what career paths most interested high schoolers.It found that many potential college students were looking at health care. The new focus area fits the skill sets of current Salem students, too -- nearly 90 percent of Salem students who graduate with a degree from the natural sciences or mathematics departments are accepted into health-related programs, according to the college.

The board created a set of parameters for the curricular changes and then handed the reins over to the faculty.

The board has established a set of guiding expectations in terms of an overall trajectory for health leadership, said Daniel Prosterman, vice president for academic and student affairs and dean at Salem. In terms of the development of the majors, the decisions with regard to the curriculum and the co-curriculum, that was then completed by a campus-designed team thats composed of faculty leaders as well as a variety of members of staff from different sectors of the college.

Faculty members and college boards are notorious for clashing over curricular and programmatic changes, but that hasnt been the case at Salem, Henking and Prosterman said.

Faculty governance adjusted itself to be able to act more quickly -- without being asked to do so -- and has really taken a leadership role in a way that I think challenges that narrative that boards are fast and presidents are fast and faculty are slow, Henking said.

The new majors will not require any additional funding at this time, and the college doesnt plan to hire any new faculty or staff members to support the changes. Instead, Henking described funding for the new programs as a redeployment of resources. The college hopes to build on the new programs in the futureand may end up adding a few more employees. It will not cut any programs or employees in order to make room for the new majors.

We wish to build a lot more things over time that will require fundraising, and we are in the process of moving that forward in a fairly aggressive way, Henking said.

The new focus will hopefully attract new students as well as external partnerships, said Lucy Rose, a former Food and Drug Administration executive and global health-care consultant who isvice chair of Salem's board.

We expect this transformation to attract more students, partnerships and funding, Rose wrote in an email. Were excited that our plan, which will be implemented in phases, will offer us an opportunity to work with new partners and organizations that share in our values and will have a direct benefit in developing a new pipeline of women leaders in health.

Salem College's undergraduate enrollment has dropped in recent years. During the 2018-19 academic year, Salem enrolled only 677 full-time undergraduate students, compared with nearly 1,000 during the 2015-16 academic year. The college also enrolls some graduate students and adult learners who are older than 23.

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Salem College refocuses its curriculum on health and leadership - Inside Higher Ed

On a packed, sun-drenched oval at the University of Western Australia's "O Day", thousands of boisterous first-year students wander excitedly from stall to stall, signing up for as much fun as possible.

The euphoria is palpable. The pandemic is forgotten for now. The future is theirs for the taking.

Amid the sea of tents, the political parties are out in force, hoping to boost their young membership and win some votes, ahead of the WA state election on March 13.

A bizarre cardboard cut-out of the Queen is propped precariously against the Young Liberals' stall while just around the corner, at Young Labor's tent, a similar life-size model of Labor Premier, Mark McGowan, is attracting a lot more attention.

Selfies with "Markie", who has been experiencing rock-star treatment over his handling of COVID-19, are definitely a thing for these first-time voters.

But, pressed on what they care about as the election draws closer, almost all of the students who spoke to the ABC turn a little more serious, nominating "secure jobs" and "climate change" as two of the most important issues.

Molly Standish, a computer science student, said she was excited to be voting for the first time.

"Climate change is a very important thing to me," she said.

"I think I'd like to have an environment that is around for my kids and my kids' kids."

That brings us to one of the more remarkable aspects of the highly unusual election campaign unfolding in the west.

The WA Liberal opposition stunned just about everyone when it departed from the party's traditional non-committal stance on climate change and vowed to close coal-fired power stations within four years, setting a target for Government to reach net zero emissions by 2030.

The politics, the policies and the people. We've collected all our coverage on the election campaign here.

Its New Energy Jobs Plan, which includes boosting wind and solar to power a hydrogen export industry, has been ridiculed by Labor as likely to cost billions and lead to huge job losses, higher bills and black-outs.

Since then, the Liberal leader Zac Kirkup has all but raised the white flag, admitting the party could be decimated by a Labor landslide.

But, by kicking the ball onto the climate debate field, renewable energy groups say the Liberals have "lifted the bar" on cutting down on fossil fuels and this could have lasting consequences, beyond the election.

Ian Porter has 45 years experience working in the oil, gas, power and nuclear industries.

He now heads up a volunteer lobby group, Sustainable Energy Now WA, and says the Liberals' surprise policy has changed the dynamics around the debate.

"I think the Liberal Party's policy is definitely stronger because they have said all state-based assets will be carbon-free by 2030," Mr Porter said.

"Labor has an aspirational target, it's not actually a legislated target, they're saying net zero by 2050.

"I think we're going to see that the Labor Party will be forced to move to this new platform of much tougher environmental policy moving forward."

WA Labor announced its climate policy late last year, topping it up earlier this month with a promise of $240 million to build standalone power systems, including solar and batteries, across the state's regions.

It has also released a 20-year blueprint for the future of WA's main electricity system, but gives no set deadline for closing all coal-fired power stations, saying they still play an important role in the power mix.

Mr Porter said the electricity and transport sectors were the "low-hanging fruit" to bring down WA's emissions.

According to the latest available figures, Australia's total emissions for the year to June 2020 fell 16.6 per cent from 2005 levels.

However, the most recent state-wide figures available show that WA's emissions increased by 21.1 per cent between 2005 and 2018, while in every other state, they fell.

"WA is one of the most carbon-intensive places in the world," Mr Porter said.

"We represent an enormous carbon footprint on a per capita basis.

"The problem with [emission] targets for the Government is that they have the gas industry lobby behind them giving them a lot of pressure."

Australia's peak oil and gas body released its state election platform warning against impromptu decision making and state-based targets for carbon emissions.

WA Director of the Australian Petroleum Production and Exploration Association, Claire Wilkinson, said she was not aware of Liberal policy before the party's announcement and decisions made without consultation with industry ran the risk of deterring investment in projects.

"It didn't talk about natural gas which is surprising given nearly half our energy supply in Western Australia is powered by gas and it's got a really big role to play as we move towards a cleaner energy future," she said.

"Climate change should be addressed at a national level with policies that are consistent with the Paris agreement.

"We don't see that the states have a need, or a requirement, to set state targets."

"APPEA and our companies actually already have quite a strong focus on reducing emissions and many have got targets of net zero emissions by 2050, if not before."

In the south-west coal town of Collie, the shire president, Sarah Stanley, is scathing about the Liberal Party's proposed shutdown of coal-fired power.

"It's an ambitious policy. Obviously it's one that a lot of us would like to see at some point in the future a zero emissions energy environment but we've got to keep in mind the reality of bringing that to bear," she said.

"What voters need to keep in mind is that we want reliable electricity across our gridit needs to be cheap, it needs to be there when we need it."

In an election overshadowed by the popularity of a Premier, others issues have been sidelined and the Liberal Party's energy policy is a "difficult sell" to its own base, according to Notre Dame University political analyst, Martin Drum.

But Mr Drum said it did have the potential to shift the conversation around climate policy, if it was a lasting Liberal position.

"The difficult thing is that when you announce that you are going to take action on climate change, it's very difficult to walk that back," he said.

"Kevin Rudd found that out in 2010.

"The Liberal policy does have the potential to push Labor further with their own policies around the generation of power in WA.

"It allows the Liberal Party to aggressively attack Labor on that issue on energy policyover the next three to four years, if we don't see action in that area.

"It could be what we might call a two-term strategy where you announce something even if you can't win an election.

"By the next time around, it's suddenly a lot more appealable."

In the meantime, Ian Porter, one of WA's 1,500 electric vehicle drivers, is encouraged by both the major parties' promises to upgrade the state's fast-charging network although he says much more needs to be done to incentivise the uptake of EVs.

He called for bi-partisanship after the March 13 election.

"To put climate at the forefront," he said.

"Not for the sake of old guys like me but for the young people."

Rob Dean, the chair of the Tesla Owners Club of WA wants more certainty on the time-line for rolling out the new EV infrastructure.

Currently, there are no fast-charging stations north of Geraldton.

"To make electric cars go mainstream, we need DC charging, fast charging where people are not inconvenienced, where they have enough time to stop, have a cup of coffeeand then keep going," he said.

"The policies from the two major parties are quite good.

"The fear among a lot of electric vehicle owners is that that policy will take a long time to enact.

"Most politicians think that we won't be moving to renewables and electric vehicles until after 2030.

"It's going to happen a lot sooner than that, so they need to start acting now."

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WA election changes the conversation on climate change - ABC News