Monthly Archives: February 2017

Bitcoin Industry Colluded, Says Miner – CryptoCoinsNews

Posted: February 15, 2017 at 8:54 pm

After almost two years of debate and seemingly nothing left to be said on the topic of bitcoin scalability, miners continue to not make a concrete decision with transaction backlogs now becoming common.

BW.com, a mining pool with around 7% of the networks hashrate, signals for 8MB blocks, but has never mined with any client which increases maxblocksize. Bitmains co-founder, Micree Zhan, stated in a recent interview that he prefers Bitcoin Unlimited. Jihan Wu, the other co-founder of Bitmain, has vocally asked for a maxblocksize increase. Yet, despite the pool controlling around 18% of the networks hashrate, they do not mine with Bitcoin Unlimited and have never mined with any client which increases maxblocksize.

This behavior appears puzzling, but, there was collusion, CCN was told back in November by a miner who would rather not be named:

I saw industry colluding to push their agendas and I wanted no part in it.

He is one of many miners that have now entered the scene not primarily driven by profit seeking but to disrupt, or at least, irritate, the incumbents a little bit and free myself the burden of moral conflict.

No details were provided, nor any concrete evidence, but suspicions that there was collusion has continued to increase due to the maneuvers over the Hong Kong Agreement.

Just under exactly one year ago, almost all miners and many Bitcoin Core developers held a closed-door meeting where no journalists or independent observers were invited.

Little, if anything, is known about what exactly happened during those 17 hours, except for a published signed agreement which binds miners to only run Bitcoin Core compatible clients for the foreseeable future.

Indications that this was more than just a paper promise came within hours of the agreements publication due to a spat between miners and Adam Back, Blockstreams President. The English version showed him as signing under his individual capacity, but the Chinese version showed him signing as Blockstreams President. This discrepancy led to miners publicly asking him to changes the English version to Blockstream President, which he did.

Suspicions that this wasnt just a mere paper agreement grew further when Bitcoin Core pull requested an unfinished segwit to argue that, technically, they had kept the agreement. Luke-Jr further claimed he technically delivered on the maxblocksize increase promise by suggesting a decrease of the blocksize to 300KB, followed by a 17% yearly increase, delivering 2MB in around two decades.

The nature of these arguments, which are based on legalese technicalities, indicates the agreement was contractual and binding, but there has been no concrete evidence except for the miners statement that he saw industry collusion.

Bitcoin Core developers and miners have kept blaming each other for breaching the agreement, but all miners who signed it continue to mine with the Bitcoin Core client.

There are two proposals on the table to increase transaction capacity, Segregated Witnesses a proposal by Bitcoin Core and Bitcoin Unlimited a new grassroots client. They both currently stand at around 20-25%. Bitmain, F2Pool, BW.com and HaoBTC, all signers of the agreement, are not choosing either, maintaining capacity at a very limited 1MB.

It is not clear why they are making no decision. Suggestions have included that they are waiting for the right time, that they are waiting for Bitcoin Core to make a new, more acceptable, proposal, that they may be enjoying the high fees, that they find any move to be highly risky and that perhaps they are bound to run only Bitcoin Core compatible clients.

Segwit and Bitcoin Unlimited Current Hashrate Share image from nodecounter

Since the agreement was signed, mining has become more decentralized. In February 2016, F2Pool and Bitmain had, in combination, just above 50% of the network hash-share with Bitfury, BTCC and BW.com accounting for almost all of the rest. Now, new pools have entered the scene with ViaBTC and BTC.TOP being the most prominent. They have not signed the agreement and are both vocally in favor of Bitcoin Unlimited, mining with the new grassroots client.

However, without a decision by F2Pool or Bitmain, both signatory to the agreement, it is unlikely the situation will change anytime soon. Wang Chun, co-founder of F2Pool, told CCN earlier this month that they have no plan to upgrade to segwit or to mine with Bitcoin Unlimited. Jihan Wu, co-founder of Bitmain, told CCN on the 5th of February 2017 that:

The protocol debate is not my priority. I need to focus on BITMAINs own business these days.

Bitcoins Current Hashrate Distribution

If there was indeed collusion, then Bitcoin is facing its ultimate test. Mining is an open and permissionless zero-sum game as any gain in hashrate is at the expense of other miners. As such, concentration of hashrate, in theory, is not a great problem because any abuse would likely lead to miners being replaced with newer honest miners who wish to protect their investment.

Whether that theory translates into practice remains to be seen, but what appears clear, for now, is that any solution is unlikely for 2017, with transaction backlogs probably continuing as bitcoin begins to transform into a slow, unpredictable and expensive payment network.

Image from Shutterstock.

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US takes pastor, software developer to trial over bitcoin exchange – Reuters

Posted: at 8:54 pm

By Nate Raymond | NEW YORK

NEW YORK A Florida software engineer and a New Jersey pastor engaged in lies and corruption to facilitate an illegal bitcoin exchange business whose operators wanted to take over a small credit union to evade scrutiny, a federal prosecutor said on Wednesday.

At the start of a trial in Manhattan federal court, Assistant U.S. Attorney Won Shin told jurors that programmer Yuri Lebedev schemed with others to bribe Trevor Gross, the pastor and head of a Jackson, New Jersey-based credit union housed in his church.

Shin said Gross accepted bribes including a $150,000 church donation in exchange for helping unlicensed bitcoin exchange Coin.mx's operator take over Helping Other People Excel Federal Credit Union.

Coin.mx, which employed Lebedev while running through a front called "Collectables Club," in exchange could use the credit union to evade scrutiny of banks wary of processing payments by individuals buying the virtual currency.

"The bribes and lies had a simple, shared purpose: For the defendants Lebedev and Gross and their co-conspirators to make money," Shin said.

But lawyers for Lebedev, 39, and Gross, 52, said they did nothing wrong and were being blamed due to actions by Anthony Murgio, who ran Coin.mx and who they said manipulated people while trying to illegally grow the business.

"Yuri was in the wrong place at the wrong time with the wrong people," said Eric Creizman, Lebedev's lawyer.

Kristen Santillo, Gross' lawyer, said he was tricked into believing Coin.mx was a memorabilia club, and thought there was nothing wrong about a donation to the church, and which did not benefit him personally.

"He didn't know anything about what they were up to," she said.

The trial followed an investigation rooted in a data breach that JPMorgan Chase & Co (JPM.N) disclosed in 2014 that exposed over 83 million accounts, leading to charges against nine individuals.

Gross, Lebedev and Murgio were not accused of hacking. But prosecutors said Coin.mx was owned by an Israeli behind the breach, Gery Shalon.

Prosecutors say Shalon, together with Maryland-born Joshua Samuel Aaron, orchestrated cyber attacks that resulted in the theft of over 100 million peoples' information.

Prosecutors said they carried out the hackings to further other schemes with another Israeli, Ziv Orenstein, including pumping up stock prices with promotional emails. Shalon, Aaron and Orenstein have pleaded not guilty.

Regulators took the credit union into conservatorship in 2015. Murgio pleaded guilty to charges related to Coin.mx in January.

(Reporting by Nate Raymond in New York; Editing by Bernard Orr)

TOKYO Toshiba Corp may delay the sale of its prized flash-memory chip unit after the conglomerate said it would consider selling most, even all, of the marquee business, a person with direct knowledge of the matter said.

STOCKHOLM Swedish music streaming service Spotify will move its U.S headquarters and more than double its workforce in the country by next year, New York governor Andrew Cuomo said on Wednesday.

TOKYO Toyota Motor Corp's chairman, who led the development of the Toyota Prius, expects the latest plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHVs) will catch on with consumers far more rapidly than the original Prius did.

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Investors Ignore Analysts, Bet on SEC Approving Bitcoin ETF – CryptoCoinsNews

Posted: at 8:54 pm

Investors are betting the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) will approve at least one of the three proposed bitcoin-focused exchange-traded funds, despite doubts expressed by Wall Street analysts, according to MarketWatch.

Futures contracts traded on BitMEX, an exchange incorporated in the Republic of Seychelles, and the falling premium of the Grayscale bitcoin trust shares traded on the secondary market, indicate participants are expecting approval, said Spencer Bogart, an analyst at Needham & Co., one of the few Wall Street analysts who cover bitcoin.

The trusts premium over bitcoins net asset value (NAV) has dropped from around 42.21 percent in early January to about 13% in recent trade, according to Grayscale. The falling premium reflects less willingness to pay for shares since investors expect near-term approval of one of the ETFs, Bogart said. Shares of a bitcoin ETF would trade closer to bitcoins net asset value, according to bitcoin observers.

BitMEX has launched a futures contract allowing investors to bet on the odds that the SEC will approve the Winklevoss ETF. It is currently trading around 33.3, reflecting that the thinly traded market is pricing in around a 33% chance of approval. This is higher than what Bogart expects.

BitMEX could not be reached for comment.

Grayscale recently filed for an initial public offering to allow its Bitcoin Investment Trust to trade as an ETF on the New York Stock Exchange. The trust is one of the few registered investment vehicles available to financial institutions.

Another company, SolidX, has also filed for a bitcoin ETF.

Also read: Analysts: Be ready for trading frenzy if SEC approves a bitcoin ETF

Should an ETF be approved, more than $300 million of institutional capital will flow into the bitcoin ecosystem in the first week, according to Bogart. This is expected to boost bitcoins price.

Chris Burniske, blockchain products lead at ARK Invest, which holds shares in Grayscales bitcoin trust, said the fall in the trusts premium indicates investors are taking a wait-and-see approach.

The trust, a taxable registered security, could attract institutions as well as individuals seeking to add bitcoin to retirement accounts, Burniske said. Only accredited investors can invest directly in the trust. The trusts market capitalization was $205.6 million last week.

Grayscale declined to comment further due to security law restrictions.

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More CU-Boulder payloads headed to space station via SpaceX – Boulder Daily Camera

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This photo released by NASA, shows the SpaceXDragon undocked from the International Space Station as it is maneuvered for its release, Wednesday, May 11, 2016. (Associated Press)

Two payloads built at the University of Colorado, one of them designed to understand and potentially combat infections such as MRSA, will be aboard the SpaceX Dragon spacecraft that's slated to launch to the International Space Station on Saturday.

The biomedical payloads are supported by CU's BioServe Space Technologies NASA-funded center in the Ann and H.J. Smead Department of Aerospace Engineering Sciences, which has built and flown more than 100 payloads on board more than 50 spaceflight missions, according to a news release.

The second of the two payloads will support research on the possible increase in the proliferation of stem cells in space, something that could aid biomedical therapy on Earth, the release stated.

This marks the ninth Dragon mission to the ISS on which SpaceX has carried CU-built payloads since 2012.

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Prey puts the fun back into fighting for your life on a space station … – The Verge

Posted: at 8:53 pm

When it comes to basic sci-fi setups, nobody would ever accuse fighting for your life on a space station thats been taken over by aliens of being particularly fresh. Whether youre talking about movies, books, or games, its the kind of premise that serves as sturdy scaffolding a framework on which to hang what are (hopefully) much more interesting ideas and interactions. So when I sat down to preview the first hour of Prey, Arkane Studios upcoming reboot of the mid-aughts shooter, I didnt quite know what to expect. What I found was a first-person action game, with some solid role-playing elements, set off by some creative narrative twists. Well, enough twists for the first hour, at least.

To start off, Prey has nothing to do whatsoever with the original game, or its canceled sequel. When asked by journalists why the game has the title it does given the utter lack of connective tissue, lead designer Ricardo Bare was honest: "Because Prey is a really good name for a game." This version takes place in the year 2032, in an alternate reality timeline where the player takes on the role of Morgan Yu. (Players can select either a male or female version of the character; I went with the latter.)

When the game begins, Morgan is preparing to undergo some strange psychological and behavioral tests at the behest of her brother, Alex. Everything seems to be going fairly smoothly until an alien creature attacks one of the doctors. Soon, Morgan finds herself on the space station Talos I, which has been completely overrun by a shape-shifting alien species called the Typhon. It turns out that Morgans been the subject of these mysterious experiments far longer than she realizes, and has suffered massive holes in her memory as a result. She begins chasing down the clues and videos that shes left for herself in order to understand whats going on and, one assumes, to eventually stop the Typhon.

This isnt a horror title; its an action game

Despite the look of some of the early footage, Prey isnt a horror title; its an action game, though it does utilize handy jump scares from time to time as random objects suddenly morph into the scurrying, multi-legged Typhon for an attack. It has a semi-open-world feel, allowing players to explore the space station largely at will. Most obstacles in the game offer multiple solutions. A locked door can be accessed by finding a keycard, for example, or by exploring an alternate route to circumvent the issue altogether.

The role-playing side of things comes into play with what Prey calls neuromods. In the game, humans are able to give themselves enhanced skills by collecting what are essentially cybernetic implants. They cover a trio of skills sets hacking, engineering, and combat with branching skill trees for each discipline letting users shape their character as they see fit. Its another way in which Prey lets players solve problems in multiple ways. I unlocked a pesky door by upgrading my hacking abilities. A hard-to-reach second floor in an atrium could have been reached by upgrading ones engineering skills to repair the lift, or by creating a makeshift platform using a weapon that shoots rapidly hardening foam. (According to Bare, theres an elaborate crafting system in the game as well, though it never came up during my hour of gameplay.)

While the notion of an overrun space station isnt particularly novel, Prey does stand out by creating a world with some beautiful aesthetics that look both believably near-future, and lived in. According to the games backstory, the Talos I started as a government space station in the 60s before being taken over by a private company in 2030, and the design melds the design language of 1960s science fiction large, magnetic tape storage systems and retro hardware litter the place with the kind of wood panelling and gold trim youd expect from a gaudy hotel.

The first hour is filled with its share of plot twists and turns

In terms of sheer gameplay, nothing about Prey was particularly mind-blowing in the time I spent with the game. Its using concepts weve seen before, put together in combinations weve seen before. But theres a polish to the whole thing that makes it undeniably fun on the most basic level; the kind of game that you can just pick up and dive into with total and complete familiarity right at the top. But much like the premise itself, that easygoing gameplay feels like its there to set up some larger aspirations: the ideas behind the narrative itself.

Ive been trying to stay away from too many plot specifics, because the first hour of Prey turns out to be filled with more than its fair share of twists and turns and one of the early reveals was one of my favorite moments of the game. Its safe to say that there is an overarching mystery, and its not really about the alien creatures at all. Its about Morgan Yu herself, with the player thrown into the role of a character who cant trust her own memory or perception of reality. She ends up relying on clues she has left for herself, a kind of unreliable narrator that adds a Memento-esque twist to the fighting, exploring, and side missioning.

Arkane has also made a point of noting that players can choose either male or female versions of the lead character. Morgan was picked as the characters name precisely because it was gender neutral, and in terms of representation, the move is to be applauded. However, despite that choice, Bare says that swapping gender roles doesnt actually change the story in any appreciable way. Different pronouns are used when characters address Morgan, and family photos that appear in the game reflect the players choice. But other than that, theres nothing about the ways in which characters interact with Morgan that shifts. For a game that is purportedly about identity, it seems like it could end up being a missed opportunity particularly given that Bare says the story can be impacted by the ways in which the player interacts with various survivors they come into contact with.

Of course, depending on how the mysteries of Prey play out, that issue may not be as problematic as it seems at first. And thats assuming the narrative actually continues to fire throughout the entirety of the game in the first place. Bare says the average time to finish has been running between 14 to 16 hours, though some players have needed 20 hours or more, and that could end up being a lot of mystery to string out depending on how engaging the pure gameplay is unto itself. No matter what happens on that front, however, one things for certain: its certainly going to look glorious.

Prey is scheduled for release on May 5th for PC, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One.

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Knox Co. students’ experiment headed to space station – WBIR.com

Posted: at 8:53 pm

Feb. 15, 2017: A team of students from Bearden Elementary entered and won the Student Spaceflight Experiments Program. Now, their test will be performed by astronauts on the International Space Station.

Michael Crowe, WBIR 7:26 PM. EST February 15, 2017

Riley Speas holds a replica of the test tube that will be sent to the International Space Station. (Photo: WBIR)

A group of Knox County students is preparing for an out of this world experience this weekend.

A team of students fro Bearden Elementary entered and won the Student Spaceflight Experiments Program. Now, their experiment on the effect of microgravity on the efficacy of antibiotics on a strain of the pink eye virus will be performed by astronauts on the International Space Station.

Students from Bearden Middle work on their experiment. (Photo: WBIR)

On the ISS, bacteria spreads much quicker because you cant use water, and its a lot harder to clean things, said Alex Hoffman, and eighth-grader at Bearden who worked on the project.

The group hopes their test could help solve one of the big problems of long-haul space travel the spread of germs on a sealed spacecraft.

Many of them could be close quarters disease that could spread really fast, said Riley Speas, another eighth-grader in the group. So to have an experiment that might help humans get to Mars faster is really exciting to think about.

Riley Speas is one of several Bearden Middle School students headed to Florida this weekend to watch their experiment launch for the ISS. (Photo: WBIR)

The students will travel to Florida this weekend for the SpaceX rocket launch, which is slated for Feb. 18. The launch has been delayed several times from August 2016.

The International Space Station. (Photo: WBIR)

The group also includes students from Vine Middle and Halls. Halls won second place, but their project will not go to space.

The Vine teams project was selected for a later launch, scheduled in June. That group is led by Melody Hawkins, an 8th grade science teacher at Vine.

Its truly a once in a lifetime opportunity for our students, she said. Im excited to see that maybe it will create a love or new passion for science they didnt have before.

The Vine experiment involved separating blue-green algae from water which could help advance water purification technology.

We focus a lot on standards, that definitely is our education model, standards based, but this gave us an opportunity to take the standard that were working on in the classroom, and extend it out into things that happen in the real world," Hawkins said.

When they found their project had been selected it was a huge surprise.

A group of students from Vine Middle School work on their experiment, which is slated to be sent to the ISS in June. (Photo: WBIR)

She passed out, laughed Sude Buyuktazeler, gesturing at Shukurani Cimpaye.

"I literally jumped out of my seat and started jumping, it was so exciting, she added.

And the educators are happy to have students taking a hands-on role in their education designing experiments and proposals that could further the future of space travel before they can drive here on earth.

It feels really, really cool because a lot of people, they don't get to help with stuff and theyre adults, said Speas. So being the age I am it's like, Woah, it's pretty awesome that I'm affecting the course of history almost.' It's pretty cool."

( 2017 WBIR)

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The Astronauts on the International Space Station Are About to Harvest Chinese Cabbage – Modern Farmer

Posted: at 8:53 pm

Last week, U.S. astronaut Peggy Whitson tweeted a picture of the Chinese cabbageshes growing on the International Space Station as part of an ongoing study called, aptly enough, the Veggie Project. Think about that: Not only can someone use social media from nearly 250 miles above the planet, they can also grow delicious vegetables there, too.

I am growing cabbage on station. I love gardening on Earth, and it is just as fun in space I just need more room to plant more! pic.twitter.com/5hGMltDVCy

Peggy Whitson (@AstroPeggy) February 8, 2017

ThisFriday, the astronauts aboard the International Space Station will harvestand eatthecabbage, a variety called Tokyo Bekana, which is the first cabbage to be grown in space (astronauts have previously growna romaine variety and some flowers, too.)

Like everything else at NASA, how Tokyo Bekana was selectedinvolves research, research, and more research. Short stature and fast growth were the two main traits scientists were looking for in a crop. A variety of plants, including Swiss chard, several lettuce varieties, spinach and beets, were tested and consideredafter all, the whole point is to get the astronauts to eat their veggies. (Just kidding. In actual fact, the project is about figuring out the best way to grow vegetables in space for long-duration trips, such as goingto Mars, and to provide the crew with a means of recreation and relaxation.)

We conducted a survey of several leafy green vegetables and looked at how the crops grew, how nutritious they were, and how a taste panel felt about them, Gioia Massa, a scientist on the project, told Modern Farmer in an email. The Tokyo bekana Chinese cabbage variety was rated as the top in growth and the favorite of tasters.

Since this is space,a special system was needed. The Vegetable Production System(nickname: Veggie) forgoes soil in favor of aplant pillow that includescontrolled-release fertilizer, water, and calcined clay, which helps with aeration. The system, developed byOrbital Technologies Corp,also uses red and green LED grow lights to replacesunlight. A new, large, plant-growing system namedtheAdvanced Plant Habitat(no nick name yet) has been developed and is expected to head up to ISS sometime this year.

According to Massa, one thing the scientist have learned is that the plants are growinga bit more slowly than expected, but are generally growing well. This is pretty much uncharted territory and things dont always go as imagined.

Our testing has revealed that leaves growing under the high CO2 of the International Space Station sometimes have yellowing and we are seeing a little of this yellowing response, she says. Being able to distribute the correct level of moisture and oxygen to plant roots has been one of the biggest challenges we face. Getting other environmental conditions optimal for plants is also a challenge.

The astronauts have already successfully grown (and eaten, and experimented on) red romaine lettuce, but this is the first time Chinese cabbage will be on the menu.Whitson, who loves to garden on Earth, too, has been in charge of growing this round of vegetables.How the crew plans to enjoy this mild and peppery green hasnt been determined. It can be eaten raw as a salad green or sautedin a stir fry. But they only get to eat half the crop as the rest will be used for experiments.

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Finally, someone has a realistic timeline for Mars colonizationthe UAE – Ars Technica

Posted: at 8:53 pm

Artist's concept of a very green city on Mars.

Dubai media office

Some sort of a sweet 22nd century ride on Mars.

Dubai media office

Is that a gun turret overlooking a Martian city?

Dubai media office

A bird(?) shaped Martian city.

Dubai media office

For now, UAE residents will have to content themselves with a virtual reality experience of the Martian surface.

Dubai media office

Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, right, and Abu Dhabi Crown Prince Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan confer before the announcement.

Dubai media office

NASA says it intends to send humans to Mars in the 2030s, but the space agency does not have a realistic budget to do so. SpaceX's Elon Musk says he will send the first human colonists to Mars in the 2020s, but his company also lacks the funding to implement its bold plans without a major government partner.

We can now add the United Arab Emirates to the list of those entitieswho want tosee Mars colonized. However, even if it too lacks the space exploration budget or technology to do so at this time, the federation of seven Arab emirates appears to have a much more reasonable timeline for sending humans to the red planetthe year 2117, a century from now.

The ruler of one of the seven emirates, Dubai'sSheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, announced UAE's colonization plan this week at the World Government Summit in Dubai. Later, in a series of tweets,Sheikh Mohammad explained, "The project, to be named 'Mars 2117,' integrates a vision to create a mini-city and community on Mars involving international cooperation.We aspire in the coming century to develop science, technology, and our youth's passion for knowledge. This project is driven by that vision."

According to Dubai's media office,an Emirati team of engineers, scientists, and researchers has developed a concept for the first human city on Mars, which will be constructed by robots in advance of human habitation. This Martian city would have transportation, power production, food andbased upon some concept drawings releasedvery modern-looking buildings.

This is all rather ambitious for a space agency that was formed just three years ago. However, the new goal does seem consistent with UAE's interest in Mars, as the Arab federation has previously announced a plan to launch an automobile-size probe named "Hope" to Mars in 2020 to study the planet's atmosphere.

What is perhaps most notable about Mars 2117 is that it represents a third major stakeholder interested in sending humans to Mars, alongside NASA and SpaceX. Most of the rest of the global space community, from Europe to Russia to China, have expressed far more interest in developing lunar resources rather than far more ambitious human missions to Mars.

Listing image by Dubai media office

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The Coming Age of Space Colonization – The Atlantic

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A crescent earth rises above the lunar horizon. (NASA/Reuters)

Our new issue yes! subscribe! contains a two-page Q&A I conducted with Eric C. Anderson. He has had a variety of tech and entrepreneurial identities, but I was speaking to him in his role as chairman and co-founder of Space Adventures, which has made a business of sending customers into space.

The subject of our discussion was the future of space travel. Below is an extended-play version of the interview, with extra questions and themes.

James Fallows: Space exploration seems to have lost its hold on the public imagination, compared with a generation ago.

Eric Anderson: I think absolutely they are right to feel a little bit disappointed. On April 12, 1961, the first human being, Yuri Gagarin, goes to space. Then, July 29, 1969: We're on the moon. If you and I were doing this interview on July 30, 1969 and you had asked me what space exploration would be like in the year 2013, I would've told you it would be far more advanced than it is now.

So I think the reality is that space was unnaturally accelerated by this Cold War conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union during the 1960s. Then, in the early part of the '70s, that sort of slowed down. The latter half of the '70s brought terrible economic trouble in the U.S., which really set the space program way back. In the '80s, it was the reverse. The Soviets basically ran out of money and then the Soviet Union collapsed. Then in the '90s we were sort of figuring out how to re-set ourselves in a post-Soviet world. It was in the mid-'90s that commercial revenues in space started to eclipse government revenuesthat was mainly for communication satellites and things like that.

So that part of the industry has gone pretty well. Every day we use GPS and DirecTV and get the weather , and that sort of stuff. But human flight has just been totally crimped. The number of people going to space, and the missions they were doing, went down. The Space Shuttle was so much over budget that it just was impossible for us to really do any real exploration. That's a long-winded answer, but yes: There's every reason for people to be disappointed with where we are now, particularly with regard to human space flight.

JF: Why should people be excited about what lies ahead?

EA: In the next generation or twosay the next 30 to 60 yearsthere will be an irreversible human migration to a permanent space colony. Some people will tell you that this new colony will be on the moon, or an asteroidin my opinion asteroids are a great place to go, but mostly for mining. I think the location is likely to be Mars. This Mars colony will start off with a few thousand people, and then it may grow over 100 years to a few million people, but it will be there permanently. That should be really exciting, to be alive during that stage of humanity's history.

JF: I have to askreally? This will really happen?

EA: I really do believe it will. First of all, the key to making it happen is to reduce the cost of transportation into space. My colleague Elon Musk is aiming to get the cost of a flight to Mars down to half a million dollars a person. I think that even if it costs maybe a few million dollars a person to launch to Mars, a colony could be feasible. To me the question is, does it happen in the next 30 years, or does it happen in the next 60 to 70 years? There's no question it's going to happen in this century, and that's a pretty exciting thing.

JF: Apart from the cost of transport, what are the challenges in making that a reality? Are they cost and engineering challenges, or are they basic science problems?

EA: I think it's all about the economics. There is no technological or engineering challenge.

One key to making all this happen is that we need to use the resources of space to help us colonize space. It would have been pretty tough for the settlers who went to California if they'd had to bring every supply they would ever need along with them from the East Coast.

That's why Planetary Resources exists. The near-Earth asteroids, which are very, very close to the Earth, are filled with resources that would be useful for people wanting to go to Mars, or anywhere else in the solar system. They contain precious resources like water, rocket fuel, strategic metals. So first there needs to be a reduction in the cost of getting off the Earth's surface, and then there needs to be the ability to "live off the land" by using the resources in space.

JF: Againreally? To the general public, asteroid mining just has a fantastic-slash-wacky connotation. How practical is this?

EA: When [co-founder] Peter Diamandis and I conceived of the company, we knew it would be a multi-decade effort. From history, we knew that frontiers are opened by access to resources. We would like to see a future where humans are expanding the sphere of influence of humanity into space.

To make asteroid mining viable, we need spacecraft that can launch and operate in space considerably less expensively than has traditionally been the case. If we are able to do that, then asteroid mining can be profitablevery much so. When you ask "Is it viable?," I'll be the first one to tell you how risky this proposition is, and how there is a significant possibility that we could fail in a particular mission or technology, or fall short of our goals.

But we have found ways to reduce the cost of space exploration already. For example, our prospecting mission to a set of targeted asteroids will use the Arkyd line of spacecraft. The first of that series, the Arkyd-100, would have cost $100 million, minimum, in the traditional aerospace way of business and operation. But with the engineering talent we have, and by using commercially available parts and allowing ourselves to take appropriate risks, we've been able to bring that cost down to $4 or $5 million dollars.

In 10 years or so, what we'd really like to do is get robotic exploration of space in line with Moore's Law [the tech-world maxim that the price for computing power falls by half every 18 months]. Remember, asteroid mining doesn't involve people. We want to transition space exploration from a linear technology into an exponential one, and create an industry that can flourish off of exponential technologies such as artificial intelligence and machine learning.

Our first missions, for asteroid reconnaissance, will be launching in the next two to three years. For these missions, we're going to launch small swarms of spacecraft. When I say small, I mean we'll send three or four spacecraft, and each one of those spacecraft may weigh only 30 pounds. But they will have optical sensors that are better than any camera available today. They will send back imagery, they'll map the gravity field, they'll use telescopic remote sensing and spectroscopy to tell us exactly what materials are in the asteroid. It will be possible to know more about an ore body that's 10 million miles away from us in space than it would be to know about an ore body 10 miles below the Earth's surface.

We're really not talking about if; we're talking about when.

JF: Apart from the practicalities of asteroid mining, what is it going to mean in spiritual and philosophical ways for people to leave the Earth? I guess this is taking us back to the science fiction of the '50s and '60s, but what do you think?

EA: I've thought a lot about that. The interesting thing will be to see why the people who go to Mars, or to a colony on the moon, or to an asteroid, decide to go there. Will they go there because they're escaping something? Will they go there because they're curious? Will they go to make money?

Throughout history, most of the frontiers that we have had on the Earth have been opened up because people were seeking landnew hunting grounds, or fertile locations for cattleor mining for gold or precious metals. But occasionally they would go somewhere new because they were seeking religious freedom or some other kind of freedom.

So I don't actually know why people will go. Will the Earth be so ravaged by war, or catastrophic climate change, or whatever else, that people will want to leave?

JF: In addition to the forces you mentioned, over the last half millennium or more, the search for new territory has been powerfully driven by national rivalries. The French, the English, the Spanish and others were seeking new territory in which to spread their influence. Do you imagine the national rivalries on Earth being soothed by space exploration? Or rather being aggravated by space exploration, the way the exploration of the New World was?

EA: I think it's an excellent question, and I think it's inevitable. The Outer Space Treaty, which was signed in 1967, basically says that no nation can claim a celestial body for its own sovereignty. And it also says that anything that is launched from a particular nation, that nation is responsible for, if it crashes into another nation or something like that. But I don't see the Outer Space Treaty living another 100 years.

I think that history repeats itself, and all the same things that happened in our history over the last thousand years will happen in one form or another in the next thousand years. Nowadays things are accelerated, it won't take as long for those cycles of history to happenbecause we have faster means of communication, faster democracies, faster governments. The consequences of action, of economic and political and social drivers, can be felt and reacted to faster than they have been in the past.

But those same things will happen. If the first colonists going to Mars are all American, what kind of system do you think they're going to want to set up on Mars? And how are other countries going to feel about that? And at what point will the Americans just pull out of the Outer Space Treaty? Or maybe it'll be the Chinesethe Chinese could get to Mars long before us. Who knows? But being there is 99 percent of it and I think that when the dam breaks and it's possible to travel at a reasonable cost in space outside the Earth's very-near vicinity, all sorts of things are going to change.

And one of the other tenets of the Outer Space Treaty is that space will not be weaponized. I hope that lasts for a long, long, long time, but I mean, who knows, it seems like a pipe dream to think that would last forever.

JF: About the environment: Are you thinking space could be not just an escape from a ravaged Earth but a way to save the Earth?

EA: There's a huge environmental cost to mining on Earth. But there are lots of strategic materials and metals that we can get in space and that will be necessary for us if we want to create abundance and prosperity generations from now on Earth. We sort of had a freebie over the past couple hundred yearswe figured out that you can burn coal and fossil fuels and give all the economies of the world a big boost. But that's about to end. Not only do we have to transition to a new form of energy, we also have to transition to a new form of resources. And the resources of the nearest asteroids make the resources on Earth pale by comparison. There are enough resources in the nearest asteroids to support human society and civilization for thousands of years.

I'm not suggesting that we're going to start using resources from space next year. But over the next 20 years, resources in space will most likely be used to explore our solar system. And eventually we'll start bringing them back to Earth. Wouldn't it be great if one day, all of the heavy industries of the Earthmining and energy production and manufacturingwere done somewhere else, and the Earth could be used for living, keeping it as it should be, which is a bright-blue planet with lots of green?

JF: Here's my last question. When I was a kid in the Baby Boom era, there was a genuine national excitement about space. Do you think that mood in the United States needs to be recreated for the populace as a whole? With an overall national excitement or sense of mission about space exploration, like in the 1960s? Or, on the contrary, is this something that should and can be left to people who see a business or scientific opportunity?

EA: If you look at polls, about half the population says that if it were at a price they could afford, and it were safe, they would go to space themselves. They would love to see the Earth from space. I don't know what that means in terms of gauging support. But clearly the more people are interested in and supportive of space exploration, the faster the industry will grow.

I think spending a half a percent of GDP on space, on space exploration, would be a very wise investment, whether that investment comes from the government itself or from just private industry. There are few things that inspire human engineering, human ingenuity, and the human spirit more than space exploration. Kids love space, and they love dinosaurs, and they love all those fantastical things that can happen when you push the boundaries. It's the same reason that, when my little one crawls out of her crib at night, she peeks around the corner to see what's there. This is curiosity.

We have enough perspective on ourselves and the universe to know that we just inhabit this tiny little corner of the universe. Humans are curious; so to say that we're not interested in space would put us [at odds with] the very core of our being as humans, in a world where we've defined a limit that we can never go beyond.

We obviously have huge problems on Earth, and nobody's saying that we should try to go develop space in lieu of solving our problems on Earth. But the fact of the matter is that we should always be doing things that inspire our youth and ourselves, and try to bring out the best parts of human nature.

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The Coming Age of Space Colonization - The Atlantic

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Genetically Engineered Mice DGAF About Cocaine – Inverse

Posted: at 8:52 pm

Researchers have been creating drug-addicted laboratory mice for years, but now, theyve created one capable of just saying no. Armed with extra-strong synapses created through genetic engineering, the new mice were able to resist addiction, even when presented with an ODs worth of cocaine. The freak mice were discovered by accident: The genetic engineering strategy that produced them was originally thought to make them more prone to addiction.

The University of British Columbia (UBC) researchers, publishing their work in a new Nature Neuroscience article today, custom-designed mice that produced higher-than-usual levels of the protein cadherin, which strengthened their brains synapses, the gaps between neurons that brain signals jump over. They originally thought that strengthening the reward-associated parts of the brain with cadherin would make the mice more addiction prone, but when the cadherin-strengthened mice were injected with enough cocaine to become addicted and then given the option to seek out some more coke or not, they were only half as interested in the substance as their unaltered counterparts.

A close examination of this counterintuitive result revealed that cadherin inhibits a particular neurochemical receptor in the mices brains, making it harder not easier for some neurons to signal each other. With cadherin interfering with their brains signals, the mice dont anticipate the pleasure derived from cocaine and, in turn, their behavior is not affected. In short, the mice seem to be addiction-proof.

The strength of our synapses is, among other factors, what helps us learn new tasks and make new associations, but the engineered mice appeared to have formed no strong associations about cocaine, despite being injected repeatedly. The experiments results reinforce previous theories that cadherin plays a vital role in addiction and behavioral change, though the exact nature of that role still isnt clear.

Shernaz Bamji, Ph.D., a professor in the Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences and one of the papers authors, explained to Inverse that these results mean it could some day be possible to treat addiction by changing the way learning occurs in certain areas of the brain itself, whether through cadherin, or using some other chemical. The more we learn about which functions within the brain we should be focusing on, she says, the closer we come to being able to predict who will be the most vulnerable to addiction. The results, however, do not mean doctors can start fortifying addiction-prone humans with cadherin the way Bamji and her colleagues did with the mice theres a lot we still have to understand about the neurochemistry of learning before we do that.

For normal learning, we need to be able to both weaken and strengthen synapses, Bamji said in a statement. That plasticity allows for the pruning of some neural pathways and the formation of others, enabling the brain to adapt and to learn. Ideally, we would need to find a molecule that blocks formation of a memory of a drug-induced high, while not interfering with the ability to remember important things.

The study adds to a growing body of evidence against the idea that addiction is all about an individuals lack of willpower. Such arguments are usually lazy substitutions for the actual science, which says that addiction to substances like cocaine has a lot to do with our genes. Some people have genetic mutations that leave their synapses more vulnerable to addictive substances. Fortunately, geneticists are now one step closer to figuring out how to strengthen those synapses before theyre attacked.

Photos via University of British Columbia, Science News / V. Kumar and K. Kim

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Genetically Engineered Mice DGAF About Cocaine - Inverse

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