Daily Archives: June 21, 2016

Ciberpunk – Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre

Posted: June 21, 2016 at 6:39 am

Ciberpunk palabra de origen ingls y cuya pronunciacin es /'sabpk/,[1] se trata de un subgnero de la ciencia ficcin, conocido por su enfoque en un futuro distpico con alta tecnologa y bajo nivel de vida y toma su nombre de la combinacin de ciberntica y punk. Mezcla ciencia avanzada, como la informtica y la ciberntica junto con algn grado de desintegracin o cambio radical en el orden social.

El argumento de la trama del gnero ciberpunk se centra a menudo en un conflicto entre hackers, inteligencias artificiales y megacorporaciones localizados en un futuro cercano del planeta Tierra, en oposicin del futuro lejano o panorama de encuentros galcticos en novelas como Fundacin de Isaac Asimov o Dune de Frank Herbert. Las visiones de este futuro suelen ser distopas post-industriales, pero estn normalmente marcadas por un fomento cultural extraordinario y el uso de tecnologas en mbitos nunca anticipados por sus creadores ("la calle encuentra sus propias aplicaciones para las cosas"). La atmsfera del gnero en su mayora hace eco en el cine negro y se utiliza a menudo en este gnero tcnicas de novelas policacas. Entre los primeros exponentes del gnero ciberpunk se encuentran William Gibson, Bruce Sterling, Pat Cadigan, Rudy Rucker y John Shirley. El trmino ciberpunk se acu en los aos 1980 y contina en uso.

A diferencia de la ciencia ficcin de la Nueva ola, que import las tcnicas y las preocupaciones estilsticas que ya existan en literatura y la cultura, el ciberpunk se origin en la ciencia ficcin primero, antes de incrementar la tendencia dominante de su exposicin. A comienzos y a mediados de los aos ochenta, el ciberpunk se convirti en un tema de moda en los crculos acadmicos, donde comenz a ser objeto de investigacin del postmodernismo. En este mismo perodo, el gnero se introdujo en Hollywood y se convirti en uno de los estilos de la ciencia-ficcin del segmento del cine. Muchas pelculas influyentes tales como Blade Runner,The Terminator y Akira se pueden ver como consecuencias prominentes de los estilos y de los temas del gnero. Los videojuegos, los juegos de mesa y los juegos de rol, tales como Shadowrun[2][3][4] o el apropiadamente nombrado Cyberpunk 2020,[5] ofrecen a menudo guiones que estn fuertemente influenciados por las pelculas y la escritura ciberpunk. Iniciados los aos 1990, algunas tendencias de la moda y la msica fueron etiquetadas como ciberpunk.

Mientras que una gran variedad de escritores comenz a trabajar con conceptos del ciberpunk, nuevos sub-gneros emergieron, que se centraban en la tecnologa y sus efectos sociales de una manera diferente. Los ejemplos incluyen el steampunk, iniciado por Tim Powers, Kevin Wayne Jeter y James Blaylock, y el biopunk (o alternativamente ribofunk), en el cual Paul Di Filippo es prominente. Adicionalmente algunas personas consideran trabajos tales como La era del diamante de Neal Stephenson como el inicio de la categora postciberpunk.

Los escritores ciberpunk tienden a usar elementos de la novela policaca dura, el cine negro y la prosa postmoderna para describir las caractersticas del lado subterrneo de una sociedad electrnica. La visin del gnero de un futuro alterado es llamada a menudo las anttesis de las visiones utpicas generales del futuro, populares entre 1940 y 1950. (Gibson define la antipata ciberpunk hacia la ciencia ficcin utpica en su cuento de 1981 The Gemsback Continuum, con el cual se mofa y condena hasta cierto punto la ciencia ficcin utpica).

Ciberpunk Cualquier cosa que se le pueda hacer a una rata se le puede hacer a un humano. Y podemos hacer casi cualquier cosa a las ratas. Es duro pensar en esto, pero es la verdad. Esto no cambiar con cubrirnos los ojos. Esto es ciberpunk.

En la escritura ciberpunk mucha de la accin ocurre en lnea, en el ciberespacio; velando cualquier frontera entre la realidad y la realidad virtual. Un tropo tpico en estos trabajos es la conexin directa entre el cerebro humano y un sistema de cmputo. El ciberpunk muestra el mundo bajo el dominio del sistema como un lugar oscuro, siniestro, donde las redes de cmputo dominan cada aspecto de la vida. Gigantes corporaciones multinacionales reemplazan a los gobiernos como centros del poder poltico, econmico y militar. La batalla entre un personaje marginado contra un sistema totalitario es un tema comn en la ciencia ficcin (por ejemplo, la novela 1984 de George Orwell) y particularmente en el ciberpunk, aunque en la ciencia ficcin convencional los sistemas totalitarios tienden a ser estriles, ordenados y controlados por el Estado.

Los protagonistas de la escritura ciberpunk generalmente son hackers, quienes son moldeados frecuentemente en la idea de hroe solitario que combate la injusticia: vaqueros, rnin, etc. A menudo son gente no privilegiada colocada en situaciones extraordinarias, ms que cientficos brillantes o capitanes estrella buscando intencionalmente avances o aventura, y no siempre son verdaderos hroes, (una comparacin conveniente puede ser la ambigedad moral del personaje de Clint Eastwood en la Triloga del dlar).

Protagonistas Los personajes del ciberpunk clsico son seres marginados, alejados, solitarios, que viven al margen de la sociedad, generalmente en futuros distpicos donde la vida diaria es impactada por el rpido cambio tecnolgico, una atmsfera de informacin computarizada ubicua y la modificacin invasiva del cuerpo humano.

Uno de los personajes prototipo del gnero ciberpunk es Case, de la novela Neuromante de William Gibson. Case es un "vaquero de la consola", un hacker brillante, que traiciona a sus socios del crimen organizado. Robado su talento con una lesin que lo deja lisiado; infligida en venganza por sus socios criminales, Case recibe una inesperada nica oportunidad en la vida de ser curado con asistencia mdica experta; pero a cambio de su participacin en otra empresa criminal con un nuevo equipo. Como Case muchos protagonistas ciberpunk son manipulados, puestos en situaciones donde tienen poca o ninguna opcin, y aunque ellos pueden verse en esto, no necesariamente llegan a estar ms lejos de lo que previamente estaban. Estos anti-hroes criminales, parias, visionarios, desertores e inadaptados no experimentan el camino de hroe de Campbell como un protagonista de la epopeya homrica o una novela de Alexandre Dumas. Ellos en cambio, traen a la memoria el investigador privado de la novela policaca, que podra solucionar los casos ms complejos, pero nunca recibir una recompensa justa. Este nfasis sobre los inadaptados y descontentos -que Thomas Pynchon llama el "pretrito" y Frank Zappa el "olvido de la Gran Sociedad"- es el componente "punk" del ciberpunk.

El ciberpunk se sita como un defensor de la libre circulacin de la informacin. Decididamente opuesto a los derechos de propiedad intelectual. Acrrimo defensor de las tecnologas de cifrado para garantizar la privacidad as como del dinero electrnico y de todas las modernas tecnologas digitales, en general.

La literatura ciberpunk es usada a menudo como una metfora para las preocupaciones actuales sobre los efectos y el control de las corporaciones sobre las personas, la corrupcin en los gobiernos, la enajenacin y la vigilancia tecnolgica. El ciberpunk puede ser entendido como una inquietud a los lectores y un llamado a la accin. Esto a menudo expresa el sentido de rebelin, sugiriendo que uno podra describirlo como un tipo de ciencia ficcin contracultural. En las palabras del autor y crtico David Brin,

...una mirada ms cercana, [de los autores ciberpunk], revela que retratan casi siempre a sociedades futuras con gobiernos absurdos y patticos... Cuentos populares de ciencia ficcin de Gibson, Cadigan y otros son una representacin Orwelliana de la acumulacin del poder en el prximo siglo, pero casi siempre en manos secretas ms adineradas o en corporaciones de lite

The Transparent Society, Basic Books, 1998

Las historias ciberpunk se han considerado a veces como pronsticos ficticios de la evolucin del Internet. El mundo virtual ahora conocido como Internet, aparece a menudo bajo varios nombres, incluyendo "ciberespacio", "la Red", "el Metaverso" o "la Matriz". En este contexto es importante observar que las descripciones ms tempranas de una red global de comunicaciones vinieron mucho antes que la World Wide Web se incorporara al conocimiento popular, aunque no antes de que los escritores tradicionales de la ciencia ficcin tales como Arthur Charles Clarke y en algunos comentaristas sociales como James Burke comenzaran a predecir que tales redes eventualmente se formaran.

El ciberpunk es tambin un movimiento contracultural. Como tal, tiene su origen en una tradicin libertaria y una profunda desconfianza en el uso de las nuevas tecnologas que, si bien pueden proporcionar mayores niveles de comodidad y progreso, tambin pueden alienar al individuo y ayudar a controlarlo.

Del mismo modo que la fuerza esttica del ciberpunk ha influido en otros gneros ms all de la ciencia ficcin, la fuerza de sus futuros, claramente distpicos, ha influido en la sociedad modificando nuestro punto de vista acerca de las nuevas tecnologas. As, siendo una de las funciones de la ciencia ficcin alertar a la sociedad de los peligros de sus actitudes y de sus creaciones, el ciberpunk ha sido uno de los movimientos ms exitosos dentro del gnero.

Sin embargo, el ciberpunk no es un movimiento reaccionario. No se posiciona contra la tecnologa, sino contra determinados usos de la misma. As, del mismo modo que los poderosos se valen de la tecnologa para mantener su control sobre las masas, cualquier accin en contra de ellos deber tambin contar con el uso de tecnologas sofisticadas.

Adems de posicionarse contra las implicaciones negativas de la ciencia y la tecnologa, el ciberpunk muestra situaciones que se producen en un escenario econmico controlado por organizaciones cada vez ms poderosas e influyentes, a la vez que alejadas de la ciudadana. Se denuncia as una fractura social en la que los ricos y poderosos se valen de su dinero y poder para manipular a la sociedad mediante el control de la informacin.

Algo a tener en cuenta al analizar el ciberpunk como corriente social es que sus autores no se posicionan contra algo que ser, sino contra algo que est siendo. Es esta cercana de los contenidos lo que ha hecho este movimiento tan inquietante.

El editor de ciencia ficcin Gartner Dozois es generalmente conocido como la persona que populariz el uso del trmino "ciberpunk" como un tipo de literatura. El escritor Bruce Bethke acu el trmino en 1980 para su historia corta Ciberpunk, aunque la historia no se public hasta noviembre de 1983, en Historias Asombrosas de Ciencia Ficcin, Volumen 57, Nmero 4. [9]

El trmino fue rpidamente acogido como una etiqueta aplicada a los trabajos de William Gibson, Bruce Sterling, John Shirley, Rudy Rucker, Michael Swanwick, Pat Cadigan, Lewis Shiner, Richard Kadrey y otros. De stos, Sterling inici el movimiento, liderando la ideologa, gracias a su fanzine Cheap Truth (Verdad barata). (Vase tambin los artculos de John Shirley sobre Sterling y Rucker). [10]

Los elementos del ciberpunk estn presentes en Los Cantos de Hyperion de Dan Simmons; el planeta Lusus posee muchas caractersticas del mundo distpico de Neuromante (Neuromancer) y los niveles cibernticos de la vida y la existencia de inteligencia artificial tienen obvias influencias de los trabajos de Gibson.

William Gibson con su novela Neuromancer, es probablemente el ms famoso escritor conectado con el trmino. El estilo enftico, la fascinacin con la superficie, la apariencia y sensacin de futuro y la atmsfera ya tradicional en la ciencia ficcin son vistos como la ruptura y a veces como el trabajo arquetpico del ciberpunk. [11] Neuromancer fue galardonada con los premios Hugo, Nbula y Philip K. Dick. De acuerdo con el archivo de la jerga "La total ignorancia de Gibson acerca de computadoras y la cultura hacker actual le permitieron especular sobre el rol de las computadoras y hackers en el futuro de modo que ambas son desde entonces irritantemente ingenuas y tremendamente estimulantes". [12]

Tempranamente, el ciberpunk fue aclamado como una ruptura radical de los estndares de la ciencia ficcin y una nueva manifestacin de vitalidad, sin embargo poco tiempo despus surgieron muchos crticos para cambiar su estatus a movimiento revolucionario. Estos crticos dicen que la ciencia ficcin de la "Nueva ola" de los aos 60 era mucho ms innovadora en cuanto a estilo y tcnicas narrativas. [13] Adems mientras el narrador de Neuromancer pudo haber tenido una voz inusual para la ciencia ficcin, se pueden encontrar muchos otros ejemplos anteriores a este: la voz narrativa de Gibson, por ejemplo se asemeja a la del actualsimo Raymond Chandler en su novela El Gran Sueo (1939). Otros consideran que los rasgos considerados nicos del ciberpunk, de hecho se pueden encontrar en trabajos ms antiguos de otros escritores, de los que podemos citar James Graham Ballard, Philip K. Dick, Harlan Ellison, Stanisaw Lem, Samuel R. Delany e incluso William Burroughs. Por ejemplo los trabajos de Philip K. Dick contienen temas recurrentes de decaimiento social, inteligencia artificial, paranoia y lneas ocultas entre la realidad y una especie de realidad virtual; la pelcula ciberpunk Blade Runner est basada en uno de estos libros. Humanos vinculados con mquinas son el cimiento de la novela Wolfbane de Frederik Pohl y Cyril M. Kornbluth (1959) y Criaturas de luz y oscuridad de Roger Zelazny (1986).

En 1994 el acadmico Brian Stonehill insinu que la novela El arco iris de gravedad de Thomas Pynchon no solo insulta, sino plagia a los precursores del ciberespacio. [14] Otros importantes predecesores incluyen a dos novelas muy celebradas de Alfred Bester, El hombre demolido y Las estrellas mi destino, as como la novela de Vernor Vinge Nombres verdaderos.

El escritor de ciencia ficcin David Brin describe el ciberpunk como (...) la campaa de promocin gratuita ms fina emprendida a nombre de la ciencia ficcin. Esto pudo no haber atrado a los verdaderos "punks", pero atrajo a muchos nuevos lectores y dispuso la clase de movimiento que la literatura postmodernista buscaba comentar (una ilustracin de esto es el Manifiesto Cyborg de Donna Haraway, un intento de construir un mito poltico usando cyborgs como metforas de la realidad social contempornea).[15] El ciberpunk hizo ms atractiva la ciencia ficcin para los acadmicos, argumenta Brin. Adems hizo a la ciencia ficcin ms lucrativa para Hollywood y las artes visuales en general. An cuando su importancia retrica y quejas de persecucin por parte de los aficionados al ciberpunk era irritante en el peor y chistoso en el mejor de los casos, Brin declara que Los rebeldes pusieron las cosas patas arriba; estamos en deuda con ellos [...]. Pero, el pregunta "Fueron ellos originales?".[16]

El futuro ciberpunk inspir a muchos escritores profesionales que no se encontraban entre los ciberpunk "originales" al incorporar ideas ciberpunk en sus propios trabajos, tales como Walter Jon Williams con Hardwired y Voz del torbellino, y George Alec Effinger con su obra Cuando la gravedad falla. Mientras nuevos escritores y artistas empezaron a experimentar con ideas ciberpunk, nuevas variedades de ficcin emergieron, a veces manejando el mismo nivel de crtica que las historias del ciberpunk original.Lawrence Person escribi en un ensayo publicado en el foro de Internet Slashdot:

Muchos escritores que crecieron leyendo en 1980 ahora estn publicando sus historias y novelas. Para ellos el ciberpunk no fue una revolucin o una filosofa alen que invadi la ciencia ficcin, pero era otro sabor de la ciencia ficcin. Como los escritores de los aos 1970 y 1980 que asimilaron las obras clsicas y tcnicas estilsticas de la nueva ola sin necesariamente conocer o conservar el estilo de los manifiestos y las ideologas que nacieron con ellos, los nuevos escritores muy bien pudieron haber ledo Neuromancer al tiempo que la Fundacin de Asimov, Todos sobre Zanzbar de John Brunner, o Mundo Anillo de Larry Niven y no ver una discontinuidad, sino una serie continua.

[11]

El ensayo de Person aboga usando el trmino "postciberpunk" para etiquetar los nuevos trabajos que estos escritores producen. En esta visin, las historias tpicas del postciberpunk continan enfocndose en una atmsfera de datos ubicua de informacin computarizada y el aumento ciberntico en el cuerpo humano, pero sin asumir la distopa. Buenos ejemplos pueden ser La era del diamante de Neal Stephenson o Transmetropolitan de Warren Ellis y Darick Robertson. Como todas las categoras incluidas en la ciencia ficcin, los lmites del postciberpunk son susceptibles de cambiar o ser mal definidos. Para complicar el asunto, hay un mercado continuo de novelas ciberpunk "puras" fuertemente influenciadas por el trabajo temprano de Gibson, como Carbono alterado de Richard Morgan.

En 1965, Jean-Luc Godard estrena Alphaville, un film de ciencia-ficcin con elementos de novelas de ese mismo gnero, en la cual aparece un futuro distpico propio del ciberpunk, basado, probablemente en el que aparece en Un mundo feliz de Aldous Huxley.

La pelcula Blade Runner (1982), adaptada del libro Suean los androides con ovejas elctricas? de Philip Kindred Dick, se ubica en una distopa futura en la cual seres manufacturados llamados replicantes (en la novela, andrillos) son usados como esclavos en colonias del espacio, y en la Tierra presa de varios cazadores de recompensas, quienes se encargan de "retirarlos" (matarlos). Aunque Blade Runner no fue un xito en su lanzamiento, encontr un gran nicho en el mercado de alquiler de pelculas. Puesto que la pelcula omite los elementos religiosos y mticos de la novela de Dick (por ejemplo, cajas de empata y Wilbur Mercer), cae ms estrictamente dentro del gnero ciberpunk que la novela. William Gibson revelara despus que la primera vez que vio la pelcula, se haba sorprendido mucho de cmo la apariencia de esta pelcula era similar a su visin cuando estaba trabajando en Neuromancer. Aunque no fue hasta principios de los noventa cuando se consagr como un gnero de denominacin popular, gracias a numerosas pelculas, entre las que destacan Hardware o Death Machine.

Segn lo mencionado anteriormente, la serie de televisin Max Headroom tambin expandi el ciberpunk, quiz con un xito ms popular que los primeros trabajos escritos del gnero.

El nmero de pelculas de este gnero, o por lo menos de uno de sus elementos ha crecido constantemente desde Blade Runner. Varios de los trabajos de Philip Kindred Dick se han adaptado a la pantalla gigante, con elementos ciberpunk llegando a ser tpicamente dominantes, los ejemplos incluyen Screamers (1996), Minority Report (2002), Paycheck (2003) y Una mirada a la oscuridad (2006).

Pero desafortunadamente para el argumento original, la pelcula Johnny Mnemonic (1995) fue un fracaso, comercialmente y para la crtica. Los fans de Gibson reclaman que el argumento se desvi sustancialmente del trabajo original, an cuando Gibson mismo escribi el guion final.

El director Darren Aronofsky ubica su opera prima (1998) en una Nueva York actual, pero construy el libreto con influencias de la esttica ciberpunk. De acuerdo con comentarios del DVD, l hizo esta produccin usando deliberadamente mquinas antiguas (como el diskette de 5- de pulgada), imitando el estilo tecnolgico de Brazil (1985), para crear una "sensacin" ciberpunk. Aronofsky describe el Chinatown, donde se ubica la pelcula, como "el vecindario ciberpunk despus de Nueva York".

La serie Robocop se ajusta ms al futuro cercano donde hay por lo menos una corporacin, Omni Productos de Consumo, que es una empresa todopoderosa en la ciudad de Detroit. Hasta el fin del mundo (1991) muestra otro ejemplo donde el ciberpunk es el tema de fondo, y una estrategia de argumento, para verla de otro modo y dirigir el personaje de la historia. Gattaca (1997) dirigida por Andrew Niccol es un filme negro futurista cuyo empapado modo distpico provee un buen ejemplo del biopunk.

La serie The Matrix, que inicio en 1999 con The Matrix (conformada tambin por The Matrix Reloaded, The Matrix Revolutions y The Animatrix) usan una amplia variedad de elementos ciberpunk.

El estilo ciberpunk y el diseo futurista han encontrado una gran acogida (y vasta exposicin) en el anime, incluyendo Akira (primer referente anime del gnero) es un manga en el que tambin se basa la pelcula homnima de animacin japonesa. Ambas obras tuvieron un reconocimiento instantneo como clsicos dentro de sus respectivos gneros. El manga, de ms de dos mil pginas, fue escrito y dibujado por Katsuhiro Otomo entre los aos 1982 y 1993 obteniendo un xito significativo en Japn y en el resto del mundo. Premiada con el Premio Kdansha al mejor manga en 1984 en la categora general (). El largometraje homnimo se separa de la lnea argumental del manga por causas claras: la pelcula fue estrenada cinco aos antes de la conclusin del manga. Akira se ambienta en la ciudad futurista de Neo-Tokio, representada con profundo detalle en la pelcula de animacin (se invirtieron cerca de siete millones de dlares slo en los decorados). Otras series destacadas de anime en abordar esta temtica son: Cowboy Bebop, Trigun, Desert Punk, Battle Angel Alita, Bubblegum Crisis, Armitage III, Armitage Dual Matrix, Silent Mbius, Serial Experiments Lain, Texhnolyze, Boogiepop Phamtom, Appleseed, Ergo Proxy, Psycho-Pass y Ghost in the Shell, siendo esta ltima la que ms ha influenciado la juventud contempornea japonesa que vive con una relativa cercana a la ambientacin de la serie, que muestra un Japn con tecnologas de punta y que advierte sobre los riesgos que puede causar esto ante una posible perdida de identidad humana.

El anime tambin ha proporcionado ejemplos del subgnero steampunk, como es el caso del manga de CLAMP Clover, tambin en muchos de los trabajos de Hayao Miyazaki, pero tambin notablemente en Last Exile (2003) creado por el estudio GONZO y dirigido por Koichi Chigira, que ofrece una curiosa mezcla de sociedad victoriana y batallas futuristas entre naves areas.

El trmino "msica ciberpunk" puede referirse a dos categoras algo superpuestas. Primero puede denotar la amplia gama de los trabajos musicales que las pelculas ciberpunk utilizan como banda sonora. Estos trabajos varan en gnero desde la msica clsica y el jazz usada en Blade Runner, y que por otra parte evoca el ambiente del cine negro- hasta el noise y la msica electrnica. Tpicamente las pelculas hacen uso de la electrnica, electronic body music, msica industrial, noise, futurepop, rock alternativo, rock gtico e intelligent dance music para crear la sensacin "apropiada". El mismo principio aplica a los videojuegos. Por supuesto, mientras los trabajos escritos no estn asociados a bandas sonoras con tanta frecuencia como las pelculas, la alusin a trabajos musicales es usada para el mismo efecto. Por ejemplo la novela grfica Kling Klang Klatch (1992), una fantasa oscura sobre un mundo de juguetes vivos, donde un oso de peluche amargado tiene una adiccin hacia el azcar y una predileccin por el jazz.

La "msica ciberpunk" tambin describe los trabajos asociados con la tendencia de la moda que emergi del desarrollo de la ciencia ficcin. El libro Future Shock de Alvin Toffler influy tanto en los creadores del techno en Detroit a principios de los 80, como Juan Atkins y su grupo Cybotron, como a los pioneros europeos del sintetizador Kraftwerk, produciendo canciones de clara inspiracin distpica. La banda candiense de thrash/punk/progressive metal Voivod fue una de las primeras en autodenominarse ciberpunk. En los 1990, la cultura popular comenz a incluir un movimiento en la msica y en la moda que llamaron tambin "ciberpunk" y que lleg a ser particularmente asociada con las subculturas rave y techno. Con el nuevo milenio lleg un nuevo movimiento de bandas industriales que hacan msica de "porttil". Punks y okupas se armaron con equipo digital y fusionaron la tecnologa con sonidos callejeros. La subcultura hacker documentada en lugares como el archivo de la jerga contempla este movimiento con sentimientos encontrados, desde los autoproclamados ciberpunks que estn frecuentemente "inclinados" hacia el cuero negro y el cromo quienes hablan entusiasmados de tecnologa en lugar de aprender o verse involucrados en esto. ("La actitud no sustituye a la capacidad", entrada del Archivo). Sin embargo estos autoproclamados ciberpunks al menos estn "emocionados con las cosas correctas" y tpicamente respetan a las personas que actualmente trabajan con esto de "la naturaleza hacker".

Ciertos gneros musicales como el drum and bass fueron directamente influenciados por el ciberpunk, incluso generando un subgnero completo llamado neurofunk. Un claro ejemplo de la influencia ciberpunk en la msica son la banda Sigue Sigue Sputnik y el video del tema de Duran Duran Union of the Snake. El lbum de 1982 del grupo electrnico The Cassandra Complex, se llama Cyber Punk. En la actualidad podemos decir que el gnero que representa el espritu ciberpunk es el Futurepop, de la mano de bandas como Mind.In.A.Box, VNV Nation, Rotersand, Covenant, Colony 5 o incluso bandas de Synthpop como Neuroactive, Neuroticfish y Seabound. Estos grupos destacan por el intenso uso del Vocoder (sintetizador de voz) en sus canciones, ritmos bailables entre 120-140 bpm, letras futuristas, y melodas pegadizas.

Los videojuegos usan frecuentemente el ciberpunk como fuente de inspiracin, algunos de estos como Blade Runner, Enter the Matrix o Mega Man, estn basados en pelculas del gnero, mientras que otros como Deus Ex y System Shock, Final Fantasy VII o Snatcher son trabajos originales.

Existen varios juegos de rol titulados Ciberpunk: por ejemplo Ciberpunk 2013, Ciberpunk 2020 y Ciberpunk V.3 son las tres ediciones de un mismo juego, publicado por Talsorian Games, y existe tambin un suplemento para el sistema genrico GURPS (GURPS Ciberpunk), publicado por Steve Jackson Games. Ciberpunk 2020 fue diseado con el argumento de los escritos de William Gibson en mente, y hasta cierto punto con su aprobacin, diferente de la aproximacin (quiz ms creativa) hecha por la FASA en la produccin del juego Shadowrun. Ambos juegos se ambientan en un futuro cercano, en un mundo donde la ciberntica es prominente. Netrunner es un juego de cartas coleccionables introducido en 1996, basado en el juego de rol Ciberpunk 2020; fue lanzado junto a un popular juego de realidad alternativa en lnea llamado Webrunner, que permite a los jugadores ingresar al mainframe de una perversa organizacin futurista. Tambin Iron Crown Enterprises lanz un juego de rol, titulado Cyberspace, ahora ya descatalogado.

En 1990, en una inusual unin entre la realidad y la ficcin del ciberpunk, el Servicio Secreto de los Estados Unidos lleg a las instalaciones de Steve Jackson Games y confiscaron todas sus computadoras bajo la Operacin Sundevil, que fue un masivo golpe a los hackers y crackers de computadoras. Esto se debi a que supuestamente el libro de GURPS Ciberpunk podra ser usado para preparar crmenes por ordenador. Esta, en efecto, no fue la principal razn para la redada, pero tras el evento ya fue muy tarde para corregir la impresin del pblico.[17] Ms tarde Steve Jackson Games gan el juicio contra el Servicio Secreto, ayudados por la Electronic Frontier Foundation, de mente ms amplia. Este evento alcanz algo de notoriedad, lo que se extendi tambin al libro. Todas las ediciones publicada de GURPS Ciberpunk contienen una cita en la cubierta que dice "El libro que fue decomisado por el Servicio Secreto de los Estados Unidos!". En su interior el libro provee un resumen de la redada y sus consecuencias.

El 2004 trajo numerosas publicaciones nuevas de juegos de rol ciberpunk, destac entre ellas Ex Machina, un juego ms cinematogrfico con cuatro escenarios completos y enfocado en actualizar el lado ldico del gnero a temas corrientes dentro de la ficcin ciberpunk. Estos cambios incluyen un mayor ngulo poltico, transfiriendo la alineacin del gnero e incluso incorporando temas transhumanos. El 2006 vio la largamente esperada publicacin de Ciberpunk V.3 de Talsorian Games', la secuela de Ciberpunk 2020, sin embargo muchos la vieron ms como una edicin transhumanista o postciberpunk que realmente ciberpunk.

Los juegos de rol tambin han producido una de las ms originales tomas del gnero en la forma de la serie de juegos Shadowrun de 1989. Aqu, el escenario es un distpico futuro cercano; sin embargo, tambin incorpora elementos de la fantasa y la literatura, como magia, espritus, duendes y dragones. Las facetas ciberpunk de Shadowrun fueron modeladas en gran parte basadas en los escritos de William Gibson, y la FASA, quienes lo publicaron originalmente, han sido acusados por algunos de copiar el trabajo de Gibson sin siquiera mencionar su influencia. Gibson, mientras tanto, ha mostrado su desagrado por la inclusin de elementos de fantasa dentro de los escenarios que l ayud a desarrollar. Sin embargo, Shadowrun ha introducido a muchos al gnero, y sigue siendo popular entre los jugadores.

El juego de rol Torg, publicado por West End Games tambin incluy una variante del escenario (o cosmos) ciberpunk llamado Cyberpapado. Este escenario fue inicialmente una distopa religiosa medieval que repentinamente sufri un surgimiento tecnolgico. En vez de corporaciones y gobiernos corruptos, el Cyberpapado fue dominado por el Falso Papado de Avignon. En lugar de la Internet, los hackers navegan por la "GodNet", una red comn de computadoras con directo simbolismo religioso, hogar de ngeles, demonios, y otras figuras bblicas. Otro cosmos aparte del juego Torg fue Nippon Tech, el cual incorporaba otros aspectos del ciberpunk como corporaciones dominantes con asesinos profesionales, sin embargo no incluye redes de computadores como parte fundamental del escenario.

El ciberpunk tambin ha sido usado en videojuegos de aventura para computadoras, destacan el ahora freeware Beneath a Steel Sky, publicado por Revolution Software, Neuromancer, publicado por Interplay en 1988, Bloodnet, publicado por Microprose en 1993 y Hell: A Ciberpunk Thriller, por Gametek en 1994. Tambin el ahora abandonware, Flashback. El videojuego de accin y aventura Neuromancer est basado directamente en la novela, incluyendo Chiba City, algunos de los personajes, hacking de bases de datos y plataformas ciberespaciales.

Este estilo lleg a verse plasmado en videojuegos de disparos en primera persona. Algo que se puede apreciar, por ejemplo, en Neotokyo , un mod del videojuego Half-Life 2, situado en un Japn futurista.

El primer libro cubano ciberpunk fue Nova de Cuarzo (1999), de Vladimir Hernndez Pacn. Otra novela "cyber" publicada fue Dioses de nen (2002), de Michel Encinosa F. Uno de los exponentes ms claros del Ciberpunk en Chile es Jorge Baradit, quien ha escrito las novelas Ygdrasil, Kalfukura y Synco, adems de participar o promover proyectos artsticos como PDK: Polica del Karma, Ucrona Chile y Lluscuma. Uno de los grupos espaoles que se autodenomina ciberpunk aparece en Berln en 1989 con autores de diversos fanzines underground que, en 1996, pasaran a publicar en la Web uno de los primeros ezines espaoles. Tras constituirse como asociacin en 2002 sus publicaciones evolucionarn hacia el ciberactivismo abandonando prcticamente la publicacin de relatos. Literariamente la nica aportacin reconocida de este grupo han sido las primeras novelas escritas en castellano para telfonos mviles: La, MAD phreaker, de David de Ugarte y BCN No Future de Javier Lorente. En un contexto ms futurista est 2123 El ao de Moebius, con booktriler de ngel De Aluart. El sueo del Rey Rojo, del autor asturiano Rodolfo Martnez, suele considerarse tambin dentro del gnero. El filsofo y escritor Jons Barnaby, bajo el seudnimo Albert Mut, puede contarse entre las emergentes personalidades del gnero en los ltimos aos, con relatos claramente distpicos y tecnolgicos como La gallina temporal[18] o Phobos B-101.[19]

En cuanto al desarrollo del movimiento en Mxico, se considera que ste se introdujo por medio de la literatura y de all parti para encontrar otros medios de expresin ms populares, como la msica. La primera obra literaria escrita en Mxico y que puede enmarcarse dentro del ciberpunk es el cuento La red de Isidro vila.[20] Sin embargo, la obra que se considera que origin el movimiento en Mxico, fue una novela publicada un par de aos despus que el cuento de vila. La primera calle de la soledad (1994), del entonces joven Gerardo Horacio Porcayo, sirvi de ancla para que muchos escritores de ciencia ficcin tomaran al gnero como algo suyo, y aunque el ciberpunk mexicano nunca termin por germinar completamente, ha perdurado ms de una dcada despus de su nacimiento.

La primera novela de ciencia ficcin que podra considerarse ciberpunk en Paraguay es La Sociedad de las Mentes (2001), de Juan de Urraza, que si bien contiene elementos utpicos que resultan disonantes con el gnero, en realidad los une al mundo virtual, sobre todo si se tiene en cuenta como un todo y se mira como unidad con su segunda novela Yronia (2005), que es la continuacin de la misma.

Entre los subgneros del ciberpunk est el steampunk que se ubica en una era victoriana ucrnica pero con una visin negra del mundo. El trmino fue acuado originalmente en 1987 como broma para describir algunas de las novelas de Tim Powers, James Blaylock y Kevin Wayne Jeter, pero con el tiempo William Gibson y Bruce Sterling ingresaron al subgnero con su novela en colaboracin La Mquina Diferencial y el trmino fue empezado a tomarse en serio.[21]

Otro subgnero similar de an muy reciente clasificacin es el que se ha venido a llamar wirepunk, heredero del steampunk, que en lugar de tomar como partida el siglo XIX, se centra en la tecnologa del siglo XX, ahora que ya supone un tiempo pasado. Un ejemplo claro es la saga literaria de Jeanne DuPrau iniciada con City of Ember.

Los inicios de 1990 vieron el nacimiento del biopunk, un estilo derivado construido no sobre la base de la tecnologa sino sobre la biologa. En estas historias la gente es cambiada de varias formas, pero no por medios mecnicos, sino por manipulacin gentica de varios de sus cromosomas. Paul di Filipo es visto como el ms prominente escritor biopunk, aunque Shaper/Mechanist de Bruce Sterling es su mayor influencia.

El gnero emergente llamado postciberpunk contina preocupndose por los efectos de los ordenadores, pero sin dar por supuesta la distopa ni dar tanta importancia a los implantes cibernticos. Tambin heredero del ciberpunk podemos considerar el concepto de singularidad tecnolgica utilizado en la ciencia ficcin ms reciente, que recoge su preocupacin por el desarrollo de la inteligencia artificial hasta el extremo, y el rol que los humanos podramos adoptar en tales circunstancias.

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Biomimetic Underwater Robot Program

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We are developing neurotechnology based on the neurophysiology and behavior of animal models. We developed two classes of biomimetic autonomous underwater vehicles (see above). The first is an 8-legged ambulatory vehicle that is based on the lobster and is intended for autonomous remote-sensing operations in rivers and/or the littoral zone ocean bottom with robust adaptations to irregular bottom contours, current and surge. The second vehicle is an undulatory system that is based on the lamprey and is intended for remote sensing operations in the water column with robust depth/altitude control and high maneuverability. These vehicles are based on a common biomimetic control, actuator and sensor architecture that features highly modularized components and low cost per vehicle. Operating in concert, they can conduct autonomous investigation of both the bottom and water column of the littoral zone or rivers. These systems represent a new class of autonomous underwater vehicles that may be adapted to operations in a variety of habitat

We are collaborating with investigators at The University of California, The University of Alabama and Newcastle University to apply principles of synthetic biology to the integration of a hybrid microbot. The aim of this research is to construct Cyberplasm, a micro-scale robot integrating microelectronics with cells in which sensor and actuator genes have been inserted and expressed. This will be accomplished using a combination of cellular device integration, advanced microelectronics and biomimicry; an approach that mimics animal models; in the latter we will imitate some of the behavior of the marine animal the sea lamprey. Synthetic muscle will generate undulatory movements to propel the robot through the water. Synthetic sensors derived from yeast cells will be reporting signals from the immediate environment. These signals will be processed by an electronic nervous system. The electronic brain will, in turn, generate signals to drive the muscle cells that will use glucose for energy. All electronic components will be powered by a microbial fuel cell integrated into the robot body.

This research aims to harness the power of synthetic biology at the cellular level by integrating specific gene parts into bacteria, yeast and mammalian cells to carry out device like functions. Moreover this approach will allow the cells/bacteria to be simplified so that the input/output (I/O) requirements of device integration can be addressed. In particular we plan to use visual receptors to couple electronics to both sensation and actuation through light signals. In addition synthetic biology will be carried out at the systems level by interfacing multiple cellular /bacterial devices together, connecting to an electronic brain and in effect creating a multi-cellular biohybrid micro-robot. Motile function will be achieved by engineering muscle cells to have the minimal cellular machinery required for excitation/contraction coupling and contractile function. The muscle will be powered by mitochondrial conversion of glucose to ATP, an energetic currency in biological cells, hence combining power generation with actuation.

We are also developing neuronal circuit based controllers for both robots and neurorehabilitative devices. These controllers are based on

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eugenics | genetics | Britannica.com

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Eugenics, the selection of desired heritable characteristics in order to improve future generations, typically in reference to humans. The term eugenics was coined in 1883 by the British explorer and natural scientist Francis Galton, who, influenced by Charles Darwins theory of natural selection, advocated a system that would allow the more suitable races or strains of blood a better chance of prevailing speedily over the less suitable. Social Darwinism, the popular theory in the late 19th century that life for humans in society was ruled by survival of the fittest, helped advance eugenics into serious scientific study in the early 1900s. By World War I, many scientific authorities and political leaders supported eugenics. However, it ultimately failed as a science in the 1930s and 40s, when the assumptions of eugenicists became heavily criticized and the Nazis used eugenics to support the extermination of entire races.

Galton, Sir FrancisCourtesy of The National Portrait Gallery, LondonAlthough eugenics as understood today dates from the late 19th century, efforts to select matings in order to secure offspring with desirable traits date from ancient times. Platos Republic (c. 378 bce) depicts a society where efforts are undertaken to improve human beings through selective breeding. Later, Italian philosopher and poet Tommaso Campanella, in City of the Sun (1623), described a utopian community in which only the socially elite are allowed to procreate. Galton, in Hereditary Genius (1869), proposed that a system of arranged marriages between men of distinction and women of wealth would eventually produce a gifted race. In 1865, the basic laws of heredity were discovered by the father of modern genetics, Gregor Mendel. His experiments with peas demonstrated that each physical trait was the result of a combination of two units (now known as genes) and could be passed from one generation to another. However, his work was largely ignored until its rediscovery in 1900. This fundamental knowledge of heredity provided eugenicistsincluding Galton, who influenced his cousin Charles Darwinwith scientific evidence to support the improvement of humans through selective breeding.

The advancement of eugenics was concurrent with an increasing appreciation of Charles Darwins account for change or evolution within societywhat contemporaries referred to as Social Darwinism. Darwin had concluded his explanations of evolution by arguing that the greatest step humans could make in their own history would occur when they realized that they were not completely guided by instinct. Rather, humans, through selective reproduction, had the ability to control their own future evolution. A language pertaining to reproduction and eugenics developed, leading to terms such as positive eugenics, defined as promoting the proliferation of good stock, and negative eugenics, defined as prohibiting marriage and breeding between defective stock. For eugenicists, nature was far more contributory than nurture in shaping humanity.

During the early 1900s, eugenics became a serious scientific study pursued by both biologists and social scientists. They sought to determine the extent to which human characteristics of social importance were inherited. Among their greatest concerns were the predictability of intelligence and certain deviant behaviours. Eugenics, however, was not confined to scientific laboratories and academic institutions. It began to pervade cultural thought around the globe, including the Scandinavian countries, most other European countries, North America, Latin America, Japan, China, and Russia. In the United States, the eugenics movement began during the Progressive Era and remained active through 1940. It gained considerable support from leading scientific authorities such as zoologist Charles B. Davenport, plant geneticist Edward M. East, and geneticist and Nobel Prize laureate Hermann J. Muller. Political leaders in favour of eugenics included U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, Secretary of State Elihu Root, and Associate Justice of the Supreme Court John Marshall Harlan. Internationally, there were many individuals whose work supported eugenic aims, including British scientists J.B.S. Haldane and Julian Huxley and Russian scientists Nikolay K. Koltsov and Yury A. Filipchenko.

Pearson, KarlCourtesy of Professor D.V. Lindley; photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co. Ltd.Galton had endowed a research fellowship in eugenics in 1904 and, in his will, provided funds for a chair of eugenics at University College, London. The fellowship and later the chair were occupied by Karl Pearson, a brilliant mathematician who helped to create the science of biometry, the statistical aspects of biology. Pearson was a controversial figure who believed that environment had little to do with the development of mental or emotional qualities. He felt that the high birth rate of the poor was a threat to civilization and that the higher races must supplant the lower. His views gave countenance to those who believed in racial and class superiority. Thus, Pearson shares the blame for the discredit later brought on eugenics.

In the United States, the Eugenics Record Office (ERO) was opened at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N.Y., in 1910 with financial support from the legacy of railroad magnate Edward Henry Harriman. Whereas ERO efforts were officially overseen by Charles B. Davenport, director of the Station for Experimental Study of Evolution (one of the biology research stations at Cold Spring Harbor), ERO activities were directly superintended by Harry H. Laughlin, a professor from Kirksville, Mo. The ERO was organized around a series of missions. These missions included serving as the national repository and clearinghouse for eugenics information, compiling an index of traits in American families, training field-workers to gather data throughout the United States, supporting investigations into the inheritance patterns of particular human traits and diseases, advising on the eugenic fitness of proposed marriages, and communicating all eugenic findings through a series of publications. To accomplish these goals, further funding was secured from the Carnegie Institution of Washington, John D. Rockefeller, Jr., the Battle Creek Race Betterment Foundation, and the Human Betterment Foundation.

Prior to the founding of the ERO, eugenics work in the United States was overseen by a standing committee of the American Breeders Association (eugenics section established in 1906), chaired by ichthyologist and Stanford University president David Starr Jordan. Research from around the globe was featured at three international congresses, held in 1912, 1921, and 1932. In addition, eugenics education was monitored in Britain by the English Eugenics Society (founded by Galton in 1907 as the Eugenics Education Society) and in the United States by the American Eugenics Society.

Following World War I, the United States gained status as a world power. A concomitant fear arose that if the healthy stock of the American people became diluted with socially undesirable traits, the countrys political and economic strength would begin to crumble. The maintenance of world peace by fostering democracy, capitalism, and, at times, eugenics-based schemes was central to the activities of the Internationalists, a group of prominent American leaders in business, education, publishing, and government. One core member of this group, the New York lawyer Madison Grant, aroused considerable pro-eugenic interest through his best-selling book The Passing of the Great Race (1916). Beginning in 1920, a series of congressional hearings was held to identify problems that immigrants were causing the United States. As the countrys eugenics expert, Harry Laughlin provided tabulations showing that certain immigrants, particularly those from Italy, Greece, and Eastern Europe, were significantly overrepresented in American prisons and institutions for the feebleminded. Further data were construed to suggest that these groups were contributing too many genetically and socially inferior people. Laughlins classification of these individuals included the feebleminded, the insane, the criminalistic, the epileptic, the inebriate, the diseasedincluding those with tuberculosis, leprosy, and syphilisthe blind, the deaf, the deformed, the dependent, chronic recipients of charity, paupers, and neer-do-wells. Racial overtones also pervaded much of the British and American eugenics literature. In 1923, Laughlin was sent by the U.S. secretary of labour as an immigration agent to Europe to investigate the chief emigrant-exporting nations. Laughlin sought to determine the feasibility of a plan whereby every prospective immigrant would be interviewed before embarking to the United States. He provided testimony before Congress that ultimately led to a new immigration law in 1924 that severely restricted the annual immigration of individuals from countries previously claimed to have contributed excessively to the dilution of American good stock.

Immigration control was but one method to control eugenically the reproductive stock of a country. Laughlin appeared at the centre of other U.S. efforts to provide eugenicists greater reproductive control over the nation. He approached state legislators with a model law to control the reproduction of institutionalized populations. By 1920, two years before the publication of Laughlins influential Eugenical Sterilization in the United States (1922), 3,200 individuals across the country were reported to have been involuntarily sterilized. That number tripled by 1929, and by 1938 more than 30,000 people were claimed to have met this fate. More than half of the states adopted Laughlins law, with California, Virginia, and Michigan leading the sterilization campaign. Laughlins efforts secured staunch judicial support in 1927. In the precedent-setting case of Buck v. Bell, Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., upheld the Virginia statute and claimed, It is better for all the world, if instead of waiting to execute degenerate offspring for crime, or to let them starve for their imbecility, society can prevent those who are manifestly unfit from continuing their kind.

During the 1930s, eugenics gained considerable popular support across the United States. Hygiene courses in public schools and eugenics courses in colleges spread eugenic-minded values to many. A eugenics exhibit titled Pedigree-Study in Man was featured at the Chicago Worlds Fair in 193334. Consistent with the fairs Century of Progress theme, stations were organized around efforts to show how favourable traits in the human population could best be perpetuated. Contrasts were drawn between the emulative, presidential Roosevelt family and the degenerate Ishmael family (one of several pseudonymous family names used, the rationale for which was not given). By studying the passage of ancestral traits, fairgoers were urged to adopt the progressive view that responsible individuals should pursue marriage ever mindful of eugenics principles. Booths were set up at county and state fairs promoting fitter families contests, and medals were awarded to eugenically sound families. Drawing again upon long-standing eugenic practices in agriculture, popular eugenic advertisements claimed it was about time that humans received the same attention in the breeding of better babies that had been given to livestock and crops for centuries.

Antieugenics sentiment began to appear after 1910 and intensified during the 1930s. Most commonly it was based on religious grounds. For example, the 1930 papal encyclical Casti connubii condemned reproductive sterilization, though it did not specifically prohibit positive eugenic attempts to amplify the inheritance of beneficial traits. Many Protestant writings sought to reconcile age-old Christian warnings about the heritable sins of the father to pro-eugenic ideals. Indeed, most of the religion-based popular writings of the period supported positive means of improving the physical and moral makeup of humanity.

In the early 1930s, Nazi Germany adopted American measures to identify and selectively reduce the presence of those deemed to be socially inferior through involuntary sterilization. A rhetoric of positive eugenics in the building of a master race pervaded Rassenhygiene (racial hygiene) movements. When Germany extended its practices far beyond sterilization in efforts to eliminate the Jewish and other non-Aryan populations, the United States became increasingly concerned over its own support of eugenics. Many scientists, physicians, and political leaders began to denounce the work of the ERO publicly. After considerable reflection, the Carnegie Institution formally closed the ERO at the end of 1939.

During the aftermath of World War II, eugenics became stigmatized such that many individuals who had once hailed it as a science now spoke disparagingly of it as a failed pseudoscience. Eugenics was dropped from organization and publication names. In 1954, Britains Annals of Eugenics was renamed Annals of Human Genetics. In 1972, the American Eugenics Society adopted the less-offensive name Society for the Study of Social Biology. Its publication, once popularly known as the Eugenics Quarterly, had already been renamed Social Biology in 1969.

U.S. Senate hearings in 1973, chaired by Edward Kennedy, revealed that thousands of U.S. citizens had been sterilized under federally supported programs. The U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare proposed guidelines encouraging each state to repeal their respective sterilization laws. Other countries, most notably China, continue to support eugenics-directed programs openly in order to ensure the genetic makeup of their future.

Despite the dropping of the term eugenics, eugenic ideas remain prevalent in many issues surrounding human reproduction. Medical genetics, a post-World War II medical specialty, encompasses a wide range of health concerns, from genetic screening and counseling to fetal gene manipulation and the treatment of adults suffering from hereditary disorders. Because certain diseases (e.g., hemophilia and Tay-Sachs disease) are now known to be genetically transmitted, many couples choose to undergo genetic screening, in which they learn the chances that their offspring have of being affected by some combination of their hereditary backgrounds. Couples at risk of passing on genetic defects may opt to remain childless or to adopt children. Furthermore, it is now possible to diagnose certain genetic defects in the unborn. Many couples choose to terminate a pregnancy that involves a genetically disabled offspring. These developments have reinforced the eugenic aim of identifying and eliminating undesirable genetic material. Counterbalancing this trend, however, has been medical progress that enables victims of many genetic diseases to live fairly normal lives. Direct manipulation of harmful genes is also being studied. If perfected, it could obviate eugenic arguments for restricting reproduction among those who carry harmful genes. Such conflicting innovations have complicated the controversy surrounding what many call the new eugenics. Moreover, suggestions for expanding eugenics programs, which range from the creation of sperm banks for the genetically superior to the potential cloning of human beings, have met with vigorous resistance from the public, which often views such programs as unwarranted interference with nature or as opportunities for abuse by authoritarian regimes.

Applications of the Human Genome Project are often referred to as Brave New World genetics or the new eugenics; however, the ethical, legal, and social implications of this international project are monitored much more closely than were early 20th-century eugenics programs. Applications also generally are more focused on the reduction of genetic diseases than on improving intelligence. Still, with or without the use of the term, many eugenics-related concerns are reemerging as a new group of individuals decide how to regulate the application of genetics science and technology. This gene-directed activity, in attempting to improve upon nature, may not be that distant from what Galton implied in 1909 when he described eugenics as the study of agencies, under social control, which may improve or impair future generations.

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Kissinger, Eugenics And Depopulation – Rense

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Dr. Henry Kissinger, who wrote: "Depopulation should be the highest priority of U.S. foreign policy towards the Third World." Research on population control, preventing future births, is now being carried out secretly by biotech companies. Dr. Ignacio Chapela, a University of California microbiologist, discovered that wild corn in remote parts of Mexico is contaminated with lab altered DNA. That discovery made him a threat to the biotech industry. Chapela was denied tenure at UC Berkeley when he reported this to the scientific community, despite the embarrassing discovery that UC Chancellor Berdahl, who was denying him tenure, was getting large cash payments - $40,000 per year - from the LAM Research Corp. in Plano, Texas. Berdahl served as president of Texas A&M University before coming to Berkeley. During a presentation about his case, Chapela revealed that a spermicidal corn developed by a U.S. company is now being tested in Mexico. Males who unknowingly eat the corn produce non-viable sperm and are unable to reproduce. Depopulation, also known as eugenics, is quite another thing and was proposed under the Nazis during World War II. It is the deliberate killing off of large segments of living populations and was proposed for Third World countries under President Carter's administration by the National Security Council's Ad Hoc Group on Population Policy. National Security Memo 200, dated April 24, 1974, and titled "Implications of world wide population growth for U.S. security & overseas interests," says: "Dr. Henry Kissinger proposed in his memorandum to the NSC that "depopulation should be the highest priority of U.S. foreign policy towards the Third World." He quoted reasons of national security, and because `(t)he U.S. economy will require large and increasing amounts of minerals from abroad, especially from less-developed countries ... Wherever a lessening of population can increase the prospects for such stability, population policy becomes relevant to resources, supplies and to the economic interests of U.S. Depopulation policy became the top priority under the NSC agenda, Club of Rome and U.S. policymakers like Gen. Alexander Haig, Cyrus Vance, Ed Muskie and Kissinger. According to an NSC spokesman at the time, the United States shared the view of former World Bank President Robert McNamara that the "population crisis" is a greater threat to U.S. national security interests than nuclear annihilation.In 1975, Henry Kissinger established a policy-planning group in the U.S. State Department's Office of Population Affairs. The depopulation "GLOBAL 2000" document for President Jimmy Carter was prepared. It is no surprise that this policy was established under President Carter with help from Kissinger and Brzezinski - all with ties to David Rockefeller. The Bush family, the Harriman family - the Wall Street business partners of Bush in financing Hitler - and the Rockefeller family are the elite of the American eugenics movement. Even Prince Philip of Britain, a member of the Bilderberg Group, is in favor of depopulation: "If I were reincarnated I would wish to be returned to earth as a killer virus to lower human population levels" (Prince Philip Duke of Edinburgh, leader of the World Wildlife Fund, quoted in "Are You Ready for Our New Age Future?" Insiders Report, American Policy Center, December 1995). Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld has been proposing, funding and building Bio-Weapons Level 3 and Level 4 labs at many places around the U.S. even on university campuses and in densely populated urban locations. In a Bio-Weapons Level 4 facility, a single bacteria or virus is lethal. Bio-Weapons Level 4 is the highest level legally allowed in the continental U.S. For what purpose are these labs being developed, and who will make the decisions on where bio-weapons created in these facilities will be used and on whom? More than 20 world-class microbiologists have been murdered since 2002, mostly in the U.S. and the UK. Nearly all were working on development of ethnic-specific bio-weapons (see Smart Dust, Roboflies &). Citizens around the U.S. are frantically filing lawsuits to stop these labs on campuses and in communities where they live. Despite the opposition of residents living near UC Davis, where a Bio-Weapons Level 4 lab was planned, it had the support of the towns mayor. She suddenly reversed her position after a monkey escaped from a high security primate facility on the campus where the bio-weapons lab was proposed. Residents claimed that if UC Davis could not keep monkeys from escaping from their cages, they certainly could not guarantee that a single virus or bacteria would not escape from a test tube. The AWOL monkey killed the project (see Smart Dust, Roboflies&). Population is a political problem. The extreme secrecy surrounding the takeover of nuclear weapons, NASA and the space program and the development of numerous bio-weapons labs is a threat to civil society, especially in the hands of the military and corporations. The fascist application of all three of these programs can be used to achieve established U.S. government depopulation policy goals, which may eliminate 2 billion of the worlds existing population through war, famine, disease and any other methods necessary. Two excellent examples of existing U.S. depopulation policy are, first, the long-term impact on the civilian population from Agent Orange in Vietnam, where the Rockefellers built oil refineries and aluminum plants during the Vietnam War. The second is the permanent contamination of the Middle East and Central Asia with depleted uranium, which, unfortunately, will destroy the genetic future of the populations living in those regions and will also have a global effect already reflected in increases in infant mortality reported in the U.S., Europe, and the UK. References Birth defects: The Tiny Victims of Desert Storm,Life photo-essay (1995), http://www.life.com /Life/essay/gulfwar/gulf01.html. Statement by Prince Philip Duke of Edinburgh, http://homepage.mac.com /kaaawa/iblog/C337802379/E1557478132/. Smart dust, roboflies, microbugs: UC is spying on youby Leuren Moret, San Francisco Bay View, Feb. 26, 2003, http://www.mindfully.org /Nucs/2003/Berkeley-Library-Classified22feb03.htm. San Francisco Bay View National Black Newspaper 4917 Third Street San Francisco California 94124 Phone: (415) 671-0789 Fax: (415) 671-0316 editor@sfbayview.co http://www.sfbayview.com /110304/ucregents110304.shtml

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Kissinger, Eugenics And Depopulation - Rense

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Cloning Blues – TV Tropes

Posted: at 6:38 am

"I am a clone, I am not alone... If you had ever seen us you'd rejoice in your uniqueness And consider every weakness something special of your own" Robert Calvert (Hawkwind), "Spirit of the Age" In Speculative Fiction, being a clone absolutely sucks. It's enough to make a clone sing the blues. Though Real Life artificial clones have to start at conception and go through childhood all over again, and can even have phenotypes that vary from their parent, Speculative Fiction clones are like perfect meta-xerox copies of the cloned person. They are exactly like the target at the moment of cloning, (possibly excused by age acceleration) with all their forebearers' memories and skills, although their personalities can develop from there. As a result, many clones brood about how they're not "real," just hollow imitations of the original. The clones tend to deal with this rather badly. Some make desperate attempts to act different. Others go mad and try to murder the original to take their place. (Emphasis on "try" hardly any succeed.) If the clone is a main character, they will spend the whole show angsting about how they're the Tomato in the Mirror. Occasionally they will have powers just like the Artificial Human. This often just ups their feelings of alienation, though. But Fridge Logic kicks in and makes this Wangst when you realize that clones occur in Real Life all the time; they're called identical twins, and they generally don't have existential crises over it. That's for the lucky clones who are created properly. In many shows, cloning is an imprecise science, so there is a high probability that any clone will turn out to be an Evil Twin almost as high as the probability of creating an evil computer (Because everyone knows that Science Is Bad). Other unlucky clones will just have birth defects, Resurrection Sickness or be increasingly inexact duplicates. And that's for the clones who are just unlucky. The really unlucky clones have malevolent creators who can make custom clones grown in a vat, sometimes in bulk which are exact meta-xerox copies of the original except that they have fanatical loyalty to the creators. You can expect all that tinkering to make something Go Horribly Wrong, too. A clone like this is always considered highly expendable by their creator, except in rare cases where said Evilutionary Biologist has developed an attachment to it. Because of all this (or possibly as a cause of all this), clones get very little respect. Heroes who hesitate at killing intelligent life might still kill their evil clone. In the question of What Measure Is a Non-Human?, most clones rank somewhere between the Big Creepy-Crawlies and the Mecha-Mooks. Interestingly, on the question of What Measure Is a Non-Unique? the only clone that matters is the last one...provided the original is dead. This assumes the clone ever had a mind of its own, of course. Sometimes a clone is an Empty Shell without the original's soul, and exists only so that the creator can overwrite their mind and personality onto it in case of accident. In this case, it's more like coming Back from the Dead although if the clone has a mind of its own at the start, this is yet another reason its life sucks. And let's not debate how Our Souls Are Different, in which case clones (especially of the deceased) will be soulless abominations before God and nature. Some clones aren't biological clones at all they're robot doubles, or copies created by the good old transporter. These have more reason to be exact xerox copies but they get even less respect. Note that all instances of actual cloning in Real Life require a live animal of the same species with a womb to carry the cloned animal to term. Science fiction tends to ignore this requirement competely, which only enforces the Trope. Unrelated to Something Blues, and to cloning Proto Man (i.e. Blues). See also Scale of Scientific Sins and Creating Life. Closely related to Expendable Clone. Contrast with Clones Are People Too, where they do get to live their own lives. Warning: This trope is often introduced as a Plot Twist, so expect spoilers.

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Anime & Manga

Comic Books

Fanfic

"Are you an angel?" his voice is the sound of leaves brushing over a tombstone. This the awful question, because if he hadn't asked it, he would still love her. His eyes are so blue, so strange set into the roped scars on his head.

"I don't know," she says, and as soon as her voice sounds, she knows it is the wrong answer. The first time he asked, when she was five, she said she was whatever he wanted her to be. Her left arm had never mended right.

Celestia was ticked, let me tell you. I mean, just creating life like that, kind of a big deal. Didn't help that I was in the middle of a breakdown, you know, the usual 'am I real' kinda thing you read in sci-fi, but the gala went pretty good despite all that.

Films Live Action

Angier: "You have no idea how much courage it took to step into that machine every night, not knowing if I'd be the Prestige . . . or the man in the box."

Literature

Carib: You're [Leia] a sophisticated woman, a politician and diplomat, fully accustomed to dealing with the whole spectrum of sentient beings. And you're good at it. Yet you, too, feel uncomfortable in our presence. Admit it.

Cordelia: Half my genes run through your body, and my selfish genome is heavily evolutionarily pre-programmed to look out for its copies. The other half is copied from the man I admire most in all the worlds. The artistic combination of the two, shall we say, arrests my attention.

Live Action TV

Music

In the valley of silly clones, where the people turn to stone In the valley of silly clones, people made of styrofoam In the valley of silly clones, where the people die alone

Puppet Shows

Tabletop Games

Toys

Video Games

Web Comics

AyleeBot: According to the latest available galactic census data, blue-haired, Caucasian human males are now the largest single sapient ethnicity in the galaxy. You outnumber several entire sapient species.

McNinja: How'd it go? Did we do it?! Ben Franklin: You're one of the clones. Get in line. McNinja: Aw...

McNinja: So...you just cloned...a clone of me. But they...don't want to kill me? Clone: I am far too busy coming to terms with the existential dread of being a clone.

Web Original

Western Animation

Real Life

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Cloning Blues - TV Tropes

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Molecular Cloning

Posted: at 6:38 am

Molecular Cloninghas served as the foundation of technical expertise in labs worldwide for 30 years. No other manual has been so popular, or so influential. Molecular Cloning, Fourth Edition, by the celebrated founding author Joe Sambrook and new co-author, the distinguished HHMI investigator Michael Green, preserves thehighly praised detail and clarity of previous editions and includes specific chapters and protocols commissioned for the book from expert practitioners at Yale, U Mass, Rockefeller University, Texas Tech, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Washington University, and other leading institutions. The theoretical and historical underpinnings of techniques are prominent features of the presentation throughout, information that does much to help trouble-shoot experimental problems.

For the fourth edition of this classic work, the content has been entirely recast to include nucleic-acid based methods selected as the most widely used and valuable in molecular and cellular biology laboratories.

Corechapters from the third edition have been revised to feature current strategies and approaches to the preparation and cloning of nucleic acids, gene transfer, and expression analysis. They are augmented by 12 new chapters which show how DNA, RNA, and proteins should be prepared, evaluated, and manipulated, and how data generation and analysis can be handled.

The new content includes methods for studying interactions between cellular components, such as microarrays, next-generation sequencing technologies, RNA interference, and epigenetic analysis using DNA methylation techniques and chromatin immunoprecipitation. To make sense of the wealth of data produced by these techniques, a bioinformatics chapter describes the use of analytical tools for comparing sequences of genes and proteins and identifying common expression patterns among sets of genes.

Building on thirty years of trust, reliability, and authority, the fourth edition of Molecular Cloning is the new gold standardthe one indispensable molecular biology laboratory manual and reference source.

Highlights of the new edition:

Praise for the previous edition:

Any basic research laboratory using molecular biology techniques will benefit from having a copy on hand of the newly published Third Edition of Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual...the first two editions of this book have been staples of molecular biology with a proven reputation for accuracy and thoroughness. The Scientist

In every kitchen there is at least one indispensable cookbook...Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual fills the same niche in the laboratory (with) information to help both the inexperienced and the advanced user. (It) has once again established its primacy as the molecular laboratory manual and is likely to be found on lab benches...around the world. Trends in Neurosciences

Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual has always been the laboratory mainstay for protocols and techniques. It has a pure-bred ancestry, and the new edition does not disappoint. (It) includes information panels at the end of each chapter that describe the principles behind the protocols.... The addition of this information extends Molecular Cloning from an essential laboratory resource into a new realm, one merging the previous prototype with a modern molecular monograph...the next generation of Molecular Cloning not only carries on the proud heritage of the first two editions but also admirably expands on that tradition to provide a truly essential laboratory manual. Trends in Microbiology

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Molecular Cloning

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Reasons Against Cloning – VIDEOS & ARTICLES

Posted: at 6:38 am

Written by Patrick Dixon

Futurist Keynote Speaker: Posts, Slides, Videos - What is Human Cloning? How to Clone. But Ethical?

Human cloning: who is cloning humans and arguments against cloning (2007)

How human clones are being made - for medical research. Arguments for and against human cloning research. Why some people want to clone themselves or even to clone the dead (and not just cloning pets).

Why investors are moving away from human cloning and why human cloning now looks a last-century way to fight disease (2007)

Should we ban human cloning? Arguments against cloning

An abnormal baby would be a nightmare come true. The technique is extremely risky right now. A particular worry is the possibility that the genetic material used from the adult will continue to age so that the genes in a newborn baby clone could be - say - 30 years old or more on the day of birth. Many attempts at animal cloning produced disfigured monsters with severe abnormalities. So that would mean creating cloned embryos, implanting them and destroying (presumably) those that look imperfect as they grow in the womb. However some abnormalities may not appear till after birth. A cloned cow recently died several weeks after birth with a huge abnormality of blood cell production. Dolly the Sheep died prematurely of severe lung disease in February 2003, and also suffered from arthritis at an unexpectedly early age - probably linked to the cloning process.

Even if a few cloned babies are born apparently normal we will have to wait up to 20 years to be sure they are not going to have problems later -for example growing old too fast. Every time a clone is made it is like throwing the dice and even a string of "healthy" clones being born would not change the likelihood that many clones born in future may have severe medical problems. And of course, that's just the ones born. What about all the disfigured and highly abnormal clones that either spontaneously aborted or were destroyed / terminated by scientists worried about the horrors they might be creating.

A child grows up knowing her mother is her sister, her grandmother is her mother. Her father is her brother-in-law. Every time her mother looks at her, she is seeing herself growing up. Unbearable emotional pressures on a teenager trying to establish his or her identity. What happens to a marriage when the "father" sees his wife's clone grow up into the exact replica (by appearance) of the beautiful 18 year old he fell in love with 35 years ago? A sexual relationship would of course be with his wife's twin, no incest involved technically.

Or maybe the child knows it is the twin of a dead brother or sister. What kind of pressures will he or she feel, knowing they were made as a direct replacement for another? It is a human experiment doomed to failure because the child will NOT be identical in every way, despite the hopes of the parents. One huge reason will be that the child will be brought up in a highly abnormal household: one where grief has been diverted into makeing a clone instead of adjusting to loss. The family environment will be totally different than that the other twin experienced. That itself will place great pressures on the emotional development of the child. You will not find a child psychiatrist in the world who could possibly say that there will not be very significant emotional risk to the cloned child as a result of these pressures.

What would Hitler have done with cloning technology if available in the 1940s? There are powerful leaders in every generation who will seek to abuse this technology for their own purposes. Going ahead with cloning technology makes this far more likely. You cannot have so-called therapeutic cloning without reproductive cloning because the technique to make cloned babies is the same as to make a cloned embryo to try to make replacement tissues. And at the speed at which biotech is accelerating there will soon be other ways to get such cells - adult stem cell technology. It is rather crude to create a complete embryonic identical twin embryo just to get hold of stem cells to make - say - nervous tissue. Much better to take cells from the adult and trigger them directly to regress to a more primitive form without the ethical issues raised by inserting a full adult set of genes into an unfertilised egg.

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Reasons Against Cloning - VIDEOS & ARTICLES

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Mind Uploading

Posted: at 6:37 am

Welcome

Minduploading.org is a collection of pages and articles designed to explore the concepts underlying mind uploading. The articles are intended to be a readable introduction to the basic technical and philosophical topics covering mind uploading and substrate-independent minds. The focus is on careful definitions of the common terms and what the implications are if mind uploading becomes possible.

Mind uploading is an ongoing area of active research, bringing together ideas from neuroscience, computer science, engineering, and philosophy. This site refers to a number of participants and researchers who are helping to make mind uploading possible.

Realistically, mind uploading likely lies many decades in the future, but the short-term offers the possibility of advanced neural prostheses that may benefit us.

Mind uploading is a popular term for a process by which the mind, a collection of memories, personality, and attributes of a specific individual, is transferred from its original biological brain to an artificial computational substrate. Alternative terms for mind uploading have appeared in fiction and non-fiction, such as mind transfer, mind downloading, off-loading, side-loading, and several others. They all refer to the same general concept of transferring the mind to a different substrate.

Once it is possible to move a mind from one substrate to another, it is then called a substrate-independent mind (SIM). The concept of SIM is inspired by the idea of designing software that can run on multiple computers with different hardware without needing to be rewritten. For example, Javas design principle write once, run everywhere makes it a platform independent system. In this context, substrate is a term referring to a generalized concept of any computational platform that is capable of universal computation.

We take the materialist position that the human mind is solely generated by the brain and is a function of neural states. Additionally, we assume that the neural states are computational processes and devices capable of universal computing are sufficient to generate the same kind of computational processes found in a brain.

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Mind Uploading

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Virtual Reality – Virtual Reality

Posted: at 6:37 am

Virtual Reality

Welcome to Virtual Reality Society (VRS). A one-stop information and news resource for virtual reality and its related technologies. Here you will find a wide range of information on the exciting world of virtual reality, from comprehensive material for beginners to interesting and deep discussions of virtual realitys problems, implications and applications.

Our mission is to become the definitive source of virtual reality information and we constantly strive to achieve this goal. Be sure to bookmark us and check back regularly for new features and new sections on our site.

Virtual reality is essentially the use of technology to create the illusion of presence in an environment that isnt really there. It works by sending information to various senses, such as sight and hearing, that fool our brains into experiencing something virtual. The illusion is often completed by the presence of interactivity, in other words the virtual world responds in some way to your presence.

Of course, generating such virtual worlds by technological means is quite a complex process and requires advanced computer hardware and software to accomplish, not to mention the complexity of peripheral devices that perform virtual reality specific functions themselves.

Its this historical cost of virtual reality that has confined its application to areas where it is either infeasible to simulate something in another way or the danger of doing so would be too great. Aviation and medicine, for example, have made use of virtual reality to allow pilots and surgeons to train in their respective professions in a highly realistic manner without risking life, limb or infrastructure.

There have been attempts to translate these high-end virtual reality technologies to the consumer space before, but the technological limitations of the day meant that not only were these products not particularly good, but many were actively unpleasant to use. Issues such as motion sickness brought on by slow and laggy visuals, for example, would be enough to put anyone off from trying the technology a second time.

Today however, thanks to the march of technological innovation, virtual reality is set to undergo a renaissance in the consumer world. Virtual Reality (VR) and its close cousin Augmented Reality (AR) are going to become ever more common features in daily life, just like smartphones and the internet. Youll likely find that no matter the area you work in, virtual reality will have some impact on it in the near to medium term. So, dont get caught out by the next big consumer technology revolution! Join us in exploring the state of the art as well as the past and future of virtual reality.

We have series of articles about the various applications of this technology and the equipment used, for example, VR glasses (or goggles as they are sometimes called). This is where you can find out more about the two types of virtual environments:

Both of these result in very different types of experiences.

A virtual environment needs to place the user at its centre and ensure that he or she has a productive experience which they are likely to repeat. But a common problem with virtual reality systems is motion sickness which is caused by poor ergonomics and a lack of awareness of the physical needs of the user. This, as one of the disadvantages of virtual reality, is something which needs to be addressed.

There are many other sections to discover here at VRS, so feel free to explore every part of the site. If you have any questions or comments you can find us on the contact page.

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Virtual Reality - Virtual Reality

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Immortality – The Atheist; scourge of religion and scammers

Posted: at 6:37 am

As of January 2016, the site has been accessed hundreds of thousands of times by people searching for facts about fuel-saving scams and psychics' claims from Sensing Murder in particular. We have added another fuel scam - Fuel360. Read all about it here.

We have had feedback from people all over the world who have learned that fuel-saving devices don't work, saving them thousands of dollars in wasted payments to scammers.

Have a look around, and if you want to ask a question, or get us to investigate a scam, email alan@immortality.co.nz and we'll get right on the case!

While I love to take on all scams and blatant bullshit, I am The Atheist, and my prime target is the stupidity, delusion and bullshit that make up the world's religions.

In the year 2016, when science can attempt to create a mini "big bang" at CERN, can replace almost every organ in the human body with a high degree of success, and can cure cancers that were deadly only a generation ago, we live in times where rationality and reason should take precedence over everything else.

Alas, that is not so, and as time marches on, religion is strengthening its hold on more and more people.

Many atheists rejoice in censuses showing decline in the "religion" identifier question, but I believe that is false hope, as the number of people who attend church has risen dramatically over the past decade. 40 years ago, almost no people aged between 18 and 40 went to church, nowadays, they have overflowing carparks.

The impact of these increased numbers - and therefore money and power - is easy to see if you know where to look. From Family First to the Maxim Institute, religions have set up fronts as "family-focused" organisations as pressure groups, and because they're funded by morons giving 10% of their wedge every week, they ensure they're heard, with an array of fulltime workers and ring-in "experts".

Look at the thousands of people who have protested recently against homosexual & marital laws and non-smacking of children. "Spare the rod and you'll spoil the child" the bible tells the religionistas and they believe it. You can bet that every single protestor against anti-smacking laws was a theist of some description or other. (update August 2012 - note the current massive spending campaign by Family First against proposals to allow people of all genders to marry)

I will not stand by and watch these deluded wankers have it all their own way.

Some - especially agnostics - people cry about "evangelical" or militant atheism as though it were a bad thing.

I say that without the soldiers of atheism being in the faces of religion, they would seek to destroy more than they already have. USA is a prime example, where even 87 years after the Scopes monkey trial, religion is trying to take over school curricula and replace science with mythology.

Other reading on the subject includes this article from Huffington Post, the best part of which is not the idiotic, unreferenced and unresearched article itself, but the comments that follow it and give the true picture of atheism and religion in USA.

The idea that "new" atheism is unnecessary or overdone is just more romantic bullshit from the promoters and apologists for religion.

If you follow the kind of religion like the Anglican Church promotes, I have no beef with you. If you find that the delusion of god makes you happy, then I'm happy. It's only when you try to impose your will on others I get pissed off.

But if you're the kind of religionista who feels that the world must conform to your delusion of a sky-daddy, then the only thing which separates you from islamist extremist with AK47s is that you're living in the privileged western world. As Jesus Camp showed us, even allegedly christian religions have elements of extremism every bit as spiteful and abusive as the worst excesses of Wahabiism.

I cringe at people whose delusions are so powerful they would rather watch someone die in agony rather than allow to die with dignity.

You can bet your last buck that the same cruel theist who would deny euthanasia for a human will be off to the vet to euthanase a loved pet rather than watch it suffer a lingering, painful death.

Double standards. Love 'em.

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Immortality - The Atheist; scourge of religion and scammers

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