This paper will start by making an assertion that many politically correct academics wouldconsider frustrating, alarming and infuriating: \u201cRace exists as a biological concept.\u201d \u00a0\u00a0Despite theunpopularity of the idea that race exists, slightly over half of all biological\/physical anthropologiststoday believe in the view that human races are biologically valid and real.\n<\/p>\n
\nAlthough the simple statement \u201crace exists as a biological concept\u201d might make manyfeel uncomfortable and want to bury their heads in the sand, this paper will attempt to prove thatthe statement is true. \u00a0Before doing so, however, it should be noted that this paper focuses onlyon the question of whether there is such a thing as race. \u00a0It will not discuss concepts of racialinferiority or superiority and nor will it even attempt to examine the scientific utility of classifyinghumans by race. \u00a0\u00a0The focus of this paper, as stated upfront, is entirely limited to whether raceexists as a biological concept.\n<\/p>\n
\nFirst, there are easily-perceived traits such as hair and eye color, body build, and facialtraits which vary among human population groups; these differences are easily perceived by thelayman; and these traits are determined at least partially (and perhaps wholly) by ancestry(genetics). Race then is simply the label given to that human population grouping. \u00a0In otherwords, as population geneticist Steve Sailer has put it, race is a lineage; it is a very extendedfamily that inbreeds to some extent.\u00a0\u00a0Under this definition, race and ancestry are synonyms. \u00a0Other synonyms for race are cluster, population, statistical collections of alleles, cline, clinalgrouping, lineage, and regional pattern. \u00a0The aforementioned are all terms that many populationgeneticists use instead of race;\u00a0however, these terms all mean the exact same thing as race.\n<\/p>\n
\n Note that race does not mean the same thing as \u201cspecies,\u201d if the word species is definedas a biologically distinct breeding unit. Because it is possible for members of different racialgroups to breed with one another, the races are not separate species. \u00a0Also, it is not possible totake any given human and unambiguously classify him or her as belonging to one particular race(as would be required with species classification). \u00a0Race in the biological sense therefore is morea statistical concept. \u00a0\u00a0It is, to put it plainly, simply a major division of the human species groupedby ancestry.\n <\/p>\n
\n A race is distinguished by a particular combination of inherited features. \u00a0Anthropologists<\/p>\n
such as University of Wyoming Professor George Gill--who, as a forensic anthropologist,determines race scientifically by analyzing the bone structure of skeletons--recognize three majordiscernable racial groups: Caucasoid (white), Mongoloid (yellow), and Negroid (black). Basically, all people on Earth can be classified into one of or a mixture of these three ancestries(races).\n <\/p>\n
\n Skin color is only one of many phenotypic traits that make up the three major racialgroups. \u00a0Stanford University Professor Luigi Cavalli-Sforza describes those of the Caucasoidancestral group as having a strong chin, light to dark hair that can be straight or slightly wavy,blue to brown eyes, thin lips, and a pasty white to tan complexion. Geographically, whites arenative to the Middle East, North Africa, and Europe. \u00a0\u00a0One of the other races, the Negroidancestral group, is characterized by a prominent jaw, broad nose, curly to frizzy hair, dark browneyes, generally large lips, and a yellow-brown to bluish-black complexion.\u00a0Black Negroids arenative to Africa. In the words of Cavalli-Sforza, \"There are clear biological differences betweenpopulations in the visual characteristics that we use to classify races.\"\n<\/p>\n
\nClassification of humans into different racial groups is essentially arbitrary, since the linescan be drawn anywhere.\u00a0However, when humans are grouped into the traditional Caucasoid-Mongoloid-Negroid classifications, it can, as J. Philippe Rushton has concluded based on thehundreds of inherited clusters that are unique to each group, have much predictive andexplanatory power.\n<\/p>\n
\nThese inherited features run deep. \u00a0No one can seriously deny that there is greatdiversity within the human genome, and differences are significant enough that the term \u201crace\u201dcan be used to describe the different ancestral clusterings of populations. \u00a0Below is a listing ofsome racial differences between just the white race and the black race. \u00a0In delineating thesedifferences, this paper focuses only on physical biological differences. \u00a0The question of differingintelligence and psychology between the black race and white race is beyond the scope of thispaper, and will be intentionally ignored.\n<\/p>\n
\nIt should also be noted that race is based on ancestry, not on any arbitrary combinationof traits. \u00a0A white person is racially similar to another white person simply because the two ofthem have a great deal more recent ancestors in common than they do with blacks. \u00a0As geneticistSteve Sailer noted, \u201cRace starts with boy meets girl, followed by baby.\"\u00a0However, implicit indiscussions of whether there is such a thing as race is the question of whether racial differencesare merely skin deep; therefore, this listing will show that racial traits include far more thansuperficial skin color. \u00a0The listing is not intended to define race by traits; it is instead intended toshow ways in which two of the three main ancestral groups--the black race and white race--differgenetically.\n<\/p>\n
\nNicotine processing differs in blacks and whites. \u00a0Blacks appear to absorb 30% more nicotine from eachcigarette than Whites do.\n<\/p>\n
\nA CPR Chicago Project study published in the New England Journal of Medicine concluded that the black community was at higher risk for cardiac arrest and subsequent death than the white community, even after controlling for other variables. [Note: there are a couple ways to interpret this disparity. It might be caused by nothing more than racism (as the race deniers would point out), and\/or it might be caused by genetic differences in the way heart attacks affect blacks vs. whites.\n<\/p>\n
\nElderly blacks have a lower life expectancy than elderly whites, even after researchers controlled for significant factors such as educational status.\n<\/p>\n
\nIn a study comparing birthrates of blacks (both American-born and African-born) and American-born whites, slight differences were found. [Note: this indicates that differing birthrates might be caused at least partially by genetics.\n<\/p>\n
\nWhite patients who receive kidney transplants have a higher survival rate than black patients.\n<\/p>\n
\nBlack men and women with the highest body-mass index have a much lower death rate than white men and women with the highest body-mass index.\n<\/p>\n
\nTreatment with the drug Enalapril results in a significant reduction in the risk of hospitalization for heart failure among white patients with left ventricular dysfunction, a heart ailment, but no such reduction among black patients with the same disorder.\n<\/p>\n
\n\u201cBlack Americans and Africans have a high frequency of a CYP2D6 allele that encodes an enzyme with impaired activity. This allele is virtually absent in whites.\n<\/p>\n
\n\u201cThere are marked differences between whites and blacks in the frequency of polymorphisms of adrenergic receptors, including the (beta)1-, (beta)2-, and (alpha)1-adrenergic receptors.\u201d\n<\/p>\n
\nThe distribution of drug receptor polymorphisms differs among populations of different racial backgrounds, which causes people of differing racial backgrounds to have different responses to drugs.\n<\/p>\n
\nAlthough blacks tend to receive lower doses of hemodialysis kidney treatment than whites, their survival when receiving dialysis treatment is better than that for whites.25 Breast cancer mortality is higher among black women than among white women in the United States, even when controlling for socioeconomic factors.\n<\/p>\n
\nBlack patients and white glaucoma patients respond differently to different surgical treatments.\n<\/p>\n
\nOne in 400 blacks inherits sickle cell, versus only 1 in 1,000,000 whites.\n<\/p>\n
\nPhysicians tend to prescribe more calcium channel blockers for blacks than whites because studies have indicated they work better to lower high blood pressure in that racial group.\n<\/p>\n
\nFor blacks with mild kidney disease linked to hypertension, the drug ramipril, an ACE inhibitor (the most commonly prescribed blood pressure medicine) is not the best at protecting against kidney failure as it is with whites, a new study has found.\n<\/p>\n
Blacks are more sensitive to pain than whites.\n<\/p>\n
\nBlacks respond more poorly to certain chemotherapy drugs than whites.\n<\/p>\n
\nCompared to whites, blacks have narrower hips.\n<\/p>\n
\nBlacks have wider shoulders than whites.\n<\/p>\n
\nBlack athletes have less body fat than whites.\n<\/p>\n
\nBlack athletes have more muscle than whites.\n<\/p>\n
\nBlack males have 3% to 19% more testosterone than white males.\n<\/p>\n
\nBlack babies are born on average one week earlier than white babies.\n<\/p>\n
\nBlack infants, although born on average one week earlier than white babies, are more mature than white infantsare when born, as measured by bone development, amniotic fluid and other indices.\n<\/p>\n
\nBlack children physically mature faster than white children, as demonstrated by the fact that black infants holdtheir necks erect earlier by an average of two weeks, walk an average of one month earlier, and enter pubertyan average of about one year earlier.<\n<\/p>\n
\nBrains of whites are on average five cubic inches larger than brains of blacks.<\n<\/p>\n
\nWhite men have brains 8.2% larger than black men do.\n<\/p>\n
\nTwenty percent of whites have a gene that prevents their bodies from producing alpha-actinin-3, a muscleprotein that provides the explosive power in fast-twitch muscles. \u00a0Only 3% of blacks have that gene.\n<\/p>\n
\nBlacks have a longer arm span than whites, and the hand of a black is relatively longer than the forearm,compared with a white.\n<\/p>\n
\nTeenage blacks demonstrate a significantly faster patellar (knee) tendon reflex time than white teenagers.\n<\/p>\n
\nIn 1999, even though they only made up 12% of the total US population, blacks accounted for 47% of all newAIDS cases in the United States. \u00a0[This indicates that either blacks are more biologically susceptible to HIV,they are more sexually active, or both. \u00a0Even the latter explanation, however, arguably is based on biology.]\n<\/p>\n
\nForensic anthropologists can identify the racial origin of a skeleton with a higher degree of accuracy than aneyewitness looking at the living person.\n<\/p>\n
\nTo a trained osteologist, the bone traits of the nose, mouth, femur, and cranium can reveal a person\u2019s race justas well as skin color, hair, nose form, and lips can.\n<\/p>\n
\nWhen the gene that controls production of thrombomodulin--a protein found in the walls of blood vessels--mutates, it causes blacks to have six times the risk of developing heart disease than for whites with the exactsame gene mutation. \u00a0This means that the gene may act differently in blacks than in whites.\n<\/p>\n
\nIn the 2000 Olympics, for the fifth consecutive Olympics, the eight men who reached the final of the 100-meterdash were all blacks of predominantly West African descent. \u00a0Given that blacks of West African descentconstitute only 7.5% of the world\u2019s population, the probability of this occurring by chance is0.0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001%. \u00a0Therefore, unless this phenomenon can bedemonstrated to have occurred due to the social environment blacks live in, the only explanation other thanhappenstance is that the races differ genetically (and thus race exists as a biological concept).\u00a0\n<\/p>\n
\n Although they dominate at the 100-meter and 400 meter dashes, blacks of West African descent are marginalat running races of 1,500 meters and higher. \u00a0This is either a coincidence, is explained by social factors, or iscaused by genetics.\n <\/p>\n
\n As of 1997, 134 out of the 134 times the 100-meter dash had been sprinted in under 10 seconds, a black ofWest African descent did it.\n <\/p>\n
\n The sheer number of differences listed above shows that racial differences are profound;the existence of race is self-evident.\n <\/p>\n
\n Of course, any racial differences are average. \u00a0Individuals within races have their owntraits, which can differ from the norm of their racial background. \u00a0However, when one comparesthe racial groups with one another in each of the above traits, no purely cultural or society-basedexplanation suffices. \u00a0Genetic and biological explanations are required; therefore, race must existas a biological concept. \u00a0Genes play a role in athletic ability, bone structure, susceptibility tovarious diseases, and even tolerance for pain--differences that go far beyond skin color.\n <\/p>\n
\n Racial differences have an evolutionary explanation. \u00a0According to the currently acceptedtheory of human evolution, Africans and non-Africans split about 110,000 years ago when non-Africans (the ancestors of Mongoloids and Caucasoids) left Africa. \u00a0Yellows and whites splitaround 70,000 years ago.\n <\/p>\n
\n \u00a0Natural selection then carried itself out over hundreds and thousandsof generations.\n <\/p>\n
\n The Human Genome Project so far has shown that human populations (races) share99% of their genes in common.<\n <\/p>\n
\n However (and ignoring the fact that this paper uses the word\u201crace\u201d as a synonym for \u201cpopulations\u201d), tiny genetic differences can translate into vast differenceson the macro level. \u00a0Human genes and chimpanzee genes are 98.4% similar,\n <\/p>\n
\n yet any claim thatthere aren\u2019t biological differences between humans as a group and chimpanzees as a group isabsurd. \u00a0Additionally, under the working definition of race used by this paper, any geneticdifference whatsoever between the socially-defined races would imply that the races exist biologically.<\/p>\n
There are 30,000 human genes, a number that includes 3.1 billion base pairs.\n<\/p>\n
\nPopulation groups (i.e., races) differ in roughly 1 in 500 (or 60 million) of the base pairs.\n<\/p>\n
\nWhenviewed in these terms, the genetic differences among the races are profound. \u00a0It is thereforepossible for a small number of genes to account for racial differences in looks, physical abilities,and perhaps even in such traits as personality.\n<\/p>\n
\nAccording to one estimate, roughly six percent of genetic variation between any twohuman individuals on the planet is caused by known racial groupings.\n<\/p>\n
\nThe genetic code ofblacks and whites differs by a full 3.2%.\n<\/p>\n
\nFurthermore, population geneticists havedemonstrated that even an infinitesimal bit of genetic variation can cause differences in traitssuch as skin color--indicating that even the slightest genetic variations between populations(races) can cause vast differences.\n<\/p>\n
\nTo further illustrate the reality of race on the genetic level, population geneticists such asCavalli Sfroza are able to calculate a person\u2019s ancestry (race) from different parts of the world tothe percentage point.\n<\/p>\n
\nForensic anthropologists can determine a suspect's racial backgroundfrom DNA evidence left at the scene of a crime. \u00a0The Canadian Society of Forensic Scienceseven has a web site at\u00a0http:\/\/www.csfs.ca\/pplus\/profiler.htm\u00a0which police can use to enter asuspect's DNA data--compiled from such sources as blood and hair samples--in order to figureout the suspect's race. Sometimes it is pointed out by race deniers that there is as much or more geneticdiversity between people of the same race from different parts of the globe as there is betweenpeople of different races.\n<\/p>\n
\nAlthough this statement is true, it is irrelevant to the question ofwhether race exists as a biological concept. \u00a0To put it into perspective, as Florida State UniversityProfessor Glade Whitney has pointed out, this statement is also true when the subjects arehumans and macaque monkeys, a close primate relative: \"When comparing humans withmacaque monkeys, there is as much or more genetic diversity between individuals of the samespecies as there is between humans as a group and macaque monkeys as a group.\"\n<\/p>\n
\nObviously, all the statement about vastly greater similarities among races than amongindividuals within races really means is that there is a wide amount of diversity within the humangene pool--just as there is wide diversity within the macaque gene pool.\n<\/p>\n
\nSimilarly, there is a vastamount of diversity within the gene pool of each of the racial groups. \u00a0Genetic differences amongracial and ethnic groups usually reflect differences in the distribution of polymorphic traits, whichoccur at different frequencies in different populations, rather than a trait unique to a particularracial or ethnic group.\n<\/p>\n
\nOverlap of many traits would obviously occur, then, and would not berelevant to the question of whether they tend to occur more in some groups than others. Cavalli-Sforza in his\u00a0The\u00a0History\u00a0and\u00a0Geography\u00a0of\u00a0Human\u00a0Genes\u00a0compiled tablesdepicting \u201cgenetic distances\u201d of the various sub-races around the world. \u00a0The genetic distance between English and Danes, two populations that are part of the white race, is equal to 7according to his classification system.\n<\/p>\n
\nThen, Cavalli-Sforza\u2019s team found, the separationbetween the English and the Italians, another white population, was 51.\n<\/p>\n
\nThe genetic distancebetween the Japanese (who are part of the yellow race) and the English was 1,244, and thedistance between English and Bantus (the largest population group of Sub-Saharan Africa that ispart of the black race) was 2,288.\n<\/p>\n
On the question of racial purity, Cavalli-Sforza has found, based on DNA studies, thatnone can be considered pure.\u00a0\u00a0Race, then, exists as populations separated by intergradingzones instead of sharp lines. \u00a0Racial groups are made by unique clusterings of gene frequenciesand physical and other differences--as one might naturally expect to find among geographicalancestral groups. \u00a0As psychologist J. Philippe Rushton concludes, \u201cRaces are recognized by acombination of geographic, ecological, and morphological factors and gene frequencies ofbiochemical components.\u201d\n<\/p>\n
\nUnder this definition, purity is irrelevant. \u00a0Either there are inheritedphysical differences among peoples (whom we call \u201craces\u201c) around the world, or there are not. \u00a0Saying that lack of purity nullifies the concept of race, as many race deniers do, is like saying thata border collie is not really a border collie because she has a poodle 10 generations back in herancestral background.\n<\/p>\n
\n In fact, though, recent evidence suggests that, at least with respect to the white race, thedegree of admixture that race-deniers claim for human populations has largely not taken place. \u00a0According to a genetic recent study of Britons, only 1% of the native British population hasanything other than white ancestry. \u00a0The remaining 99% of native Britons are \u201cpure\u201d white.\n<\/p>\n
\nThestudy itself, however, begs the question of how the researchers could determine African or Asianancestry if such a concept is a myth. \u00a0(Remember that the basic definition of \u201crace,\u201d for purposesof this paper, is ancestry.) \u00a0This lack of \u201cnegroes in the woodpile,\u201d so to speak, among whitepeople suggests that the white race might have been totally separated from the other races longenough for significant genetic differentiation to occur.\n<\/p>\n
A common argument put out by race deniers is that due to significant interracial breedingin the past, there are so many racially mixed individuals that different societies interpret racedifferently, and therefore race must not exist as a biological concept. For example, there arepeople classified as \u201cblack\u201d in the United States who can simply by virtue of getting on a planeand flying to Brazil, find themselves in a society where they are classified as \u201cwhite.\u201c\u00a0This is taken by race-deniers as proof that race cannot be rooted in biology, since it appears to renderscientifically meaningless the question of who is black and who is white.\n<\/p>\n
\nHowever, this argument is fallacious because it confuses culture with biology. \u00a0It is toomuch of a jump to say that race does not exist because certain societies have conflicting or\u201cwrong\u201d interpretations of it in their cultures. \u00a0This argument boils down to saying that race doesn\u2019texist because no pure races exist--which in itself is a common tactic of race deniers. But this isa strawman, because there is no such thing as a \u201cpure\u201d race anyway, as discussed above. \u00a0Whether there are individuals who are hybrids or combinations of races or not, one can still makethe true statement that various human populations are phenotypically and genetically(ancestrally) different from one another. \u00a0Thus, they make up different races.\n<\/p>\n
\n The idea that because there is hybridization--that the various races merge togetherinstead of having distinct boundaries--begs the question. \u00a0Suppose all mixed-race individualswere ferried off to another planet, in order to create a situation in which the human populationsleft on earth did not overlap. \u00a0Would race deniers then acknowledge the existence of race? \u00a0Usingthe criteria of, for example, the American Anthropological Association in its policy statement onrace, if human populations, through the theoretical removal of racially mixed people from theequation, were unambiguous and clearly demarcated, then the existence of race (using thereasoning of the American Anthropological Association) must be acknowledged.\n<\/p>\n
\nAnother way to look at this problem is to turn it around. \u00a0Suppose there were a situation inwhich there were definable differences between definable populations and no interracial breedinghad ever occurred. \u00a0In this hypothetical situation, all individuals could be unambiguously classifiedas Caucasoid, Negroid, or Mongoloid. \u00a0Then blend the populations at the edges. \u00a0Would this theninvalidate the theoretical truth that the populations could be classified by race? \u00a0Obviously not. \u00a0Ifsomeone had both Mongoloid and Caucasoid ancestry, then that would make him bi-racial, not a-racial\n<\/p>\n
\nThere are several areas where significant racial mixing has occurred, such as India andLatin America. The existence of racially mixed populations in those areas, however, in no waydisproves the notion that the populations of Europe, East Asia, and Africa can be differentiatedgenetically and ancestrally.\n<\/p>\n
\u00a0<\/p>\n
\nUltimately, the question of whether race exists as a biological concept is little more than aword game. \u00a0Race-deniers will claim some problematic definition for the word \u201crace,\u201d such as theuntenable notion that race means a group of individuals that is biologically different from the rest(i.e., like a separate species).\u00a0Then, while trying as hard as they can to deny that race exists,the race deniers will come up with some other word that really describes the exact same thing that race-proponents mean when they use the word \u201crace.\u201d \u00a0Cavalli-Sforza for example usesterms such as \u201cpopulation,\u201d \u201cclinal variations,\u201d \u201ccollection of alleles,\u201c and \u201ccluster,\u201d all the whilereligiously avoiding the taboo word \u201crace.\u201d \u00a0All throughout his monumental tome\u00a0The\u00a0History\u00a0andGeography\u00a0of\u00a0Human\u00a0Genes,\u00a0Cavalli-Sforza examines racial groups, yet he simply refuses to calla race a race. \u00a0Human beings, as described by Cavalli-Sforza, are a continuum of variationsamong \u201cpopulations.\u201d If one substituted the word \u201crace\u201d for \u201cpopulations,\u201c however, it would fit.\n <\/p>\n
\nConclusion \u00a0Possibly, opponents of the idea of race might argue, there is no good that can come fromeven discussing the realities of race, and a great deal of harm. \u00a0This, although it may be true, hasno logical bearing whatsoever on whether concepts surrounding race are true or not. \u00a0Onlyevidence and reason, not right or wrong, can determine the truth.\n<\/p>\n
\nIf differences among populations are small, yet still there, then they are open for furtherexamination. \u00a0If racial differences in athletic ability exist, for example, then might there also beracial differences in intelligences and emotion, and\/or in behavior and temperament? \u00a0How deepracial differences go, as well as their implications for society and the future, must be confronted.\n<\/p>\n
\nIndeed, if it is acknowledged that race exists, then some earth-shattering questions mightpop up. \u00a0Does the existence of race as a biological concept mean that racial harmony isimpossible without complete racial separation? \u00a0And is complete racial separation also the onlyway to maintain the rich diversity contained in the human genome? \u00a0Or is there some othersolution? \u00a0Those questions, and many more, will no doubt be discussed in upcoming editions ofRacial Dialectics.\n<\/p>\n
\n To sum up, there is indeed such a thing as race. \u00a0Race exists not only as a social andcultural concept but as a biological one as well. \u00a0The basic reasoning, as demonstrated above,begins with the premise that certain biological traits exist in human populations (e.g., skin color). \u00a0These traits manifest themselves in a statistical collection of alleles, which are caused byancestry. \u00a0The label given to this collection is \u201crace.\u201d \u00a0Therefore, race, by that definition, exists asa biological construct. \u00a0One\u2019s race is no more, and no less, than one\u2019s very extended family.\n <\/p>\n
\n 1 Gill, George W., \u201cDoes race exist? A proponent\u2019s perspective,\u201dhttp:\/\/www.pbs.org\/wgbh\/nova\/first\/gill.html 2 L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi, Alberto Piazza,\u00a0History\u00a0and\u00a0Geography\u00a0ofHuman\u00a0Genes,\u00a0Princeton University Press, 1994: 3. \u00a0 3 Sailer, Steve, \u201cCavalli-Sforza's Ink Cloud\u201d, http:\/\/www.vdare.com\/sailer_may_24.htm<\/a> <\/p>\n \n4 See, e.g., CAVALLI-SFORZA, et al.:\u00a0History\u00a0and\u00a0Geography\u00a0of\u00a0Human\u00a0Genes\n<\/p>\n \n5 See, e.g., Mayr, Dr. Ernst, \u201cWhat is a species, and what is not?\u201d, \u00a0PHILOSOPHY\u00a0OFSCIENCE,\u00a0VOL. 63, JUNE 1996: \u00a0262-277.\n<\/p>\n \n6 Gill, George W., \u201cCraniofacial Criteria in the Skeletal Attribution of Race.\u201d In\u00a0ForensicOsteology:\u00a0Advances\u00a0in\u00a0the\u00a0Identification\u00a0of\u00a0Human\u00a0Remains\u00a0ed. by Kathleen J. Reichs.Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Ltd., 1998: \u00a0293-317. \u00a0\n<\/p>\n \n7 Gill, George W., \u201cCraniofacial Criteria in the Skeletal Attribution of Race.\u201d: \u00a0293-317. \u00a0\n<\/p>\n \n8 CAVALLI-SFORZA, et al.:\u00a0History\u00a0and\u00a0Geography\u00a0of\u00a0Human\u00a0Genes:\u00a0266-267.\n<\/p>\n \n9 CAVALLI-SFORZA, et al.:\u00a0History\u00a0and\u00a0Geography\u00a0of\u00a0Human\u00a0Genes:\u00a0161-168.\n<\/p>\n \n10 Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca,\u00a0Genes,\u00a0Peoples,\u00a0and\u00a0Languages,\u00a0North Point Press, 2000:9.\n<\/p>\n \n11 Cavalli-Sforza,\u00a0Genes,\u00a0Peoples,\u00a0and\u00a0Languages:9.\n<\/p>\n \n12 Cavalli-Sforza,\u00a0Genes,\u00a0Peoples,\u00a0and\u00a0Languages:\u00a029.\n<\/p>\n \n13 Rushton, J. Phillipe,\u00a0Race,\u00a0Evolution,\u00a0and\u00a0Behavior,\u00a0Transaction Publishers, 1995: xiii.\n<\/p>\n \n14 Sailer, Steve, \u201cMaking sense of the concept of race: A race is an extremely extendedfamily,\u201d 1998: http:\/\/isteve.com\/makingsense.htm<\/a>\n<\/p>\n \n15 http:\/\/www.healthcentral.com\/news\/newwsfulltext.cfm?id=5824&StoryType=ReutersNews<\/a>\n<\/p>\n \n16 Becker, Lance B., Han, Ben H., Meyer, Peter M., Wright, Fred A., Rhodes, Karin V., Smith, David W.,Barrett, John, The CPR Chicago Project, \u201cRacial Differences in the Incidence of Cardiac Arrest andSubsequent Survival,\u201d\u00a0N\u00a0Engl\u00a0J\u00a0Med\u00a01993 329: 600-606 \u00a0\n<\/p>\n \n17 Guralnik, Jack M., et al., \u201cEducational Status and Active Life Expectancy among Older Blacks and Whites,\u201d The\u00a0New\u00a0England\u00a0Journal\u00a0of\u00a0Medicine,\u00a0Volume 329, 1993:110-116.\n<\/p>\n \n18 David, \u00a0Richard J., et al., \u201cDiffering Birth Weight among Infants of U.S.-Born Blacks, African-BornBlacks, and U.S.-Born Whites,\u201d\u00a0The\u00a0New\u00a0England\u00a0Journal\u00a0of\u00a0Medicine, Volume 337, 1997: 1209-1214\n<\/p>\n \n19 Wolfe, Robert A., Ashby, Valarie B., Milford, Edgar L., Ojo, Akinlolu O., Ettenger, Robert E., Agodoa,Lawrence Y.C., Held, Philip J., Port, Friedrich K. \u201cComparison of Mortality in All Patients on Dialysis,Patients on Dialysis Awaiting Transplantation, and Recipients of a First Cadaveric Transplant,\u201dN\u00a0Engl\u00a0J\u00a0Med\u00a01999 341: 1725-1730 \u00a0\n<\/p>\n \n20\u00a0Calle, Eugenia E., Thun, Michael J., Petrelli, Jennifer M., Rodriguez, Carmen, Heath, Clark W.\u201cBody-Mass Index and Mortality in a Prospective Cohort of U.S. Adults,\u201d\u00a0N\u00a0Engl\u00a0J\u00a0Med\u00a01999 341: 1097-1105.\n<\/p>\n \n21 Exner, Derek V., Dries, Daniel L., Domanski, Michael J., Cohn, Jay N. \u201cLesser Response toAngiotensin-Converting-Enzyme Inhibitor Therapy in Black as Compared with White Patients with LeftVentricular Dysfunction,\u201d\u00a0N\u00a0Engl\u00a0J\u00a0Med\u00a02001 344: 1351-1357. \u00a0\n<\/p>\n \n22\u00a0Wood, Alastair J.J. \u201cRacial Differences in the Response to Drugs -- Pointers to Genetic Differences,\u201dN\u00a0Engl\u00a0J\u00a0Med\u00a02001 344: 1393-1396. \u00a0\n<\/p>\n \n23\u00a0Exner, Derek V., Dries, Daniel L., Domanski, Michael J., Cohn, Jay N. \u201cLesser Response toAngiotensin-Converting-Enzyme Inhibitor Therapy in Black as Compared with White Patients with LeftVentricular Dysfunction,\u201d\u00a0N\u00a0Engl\u00a0J\u00a0Med\u00a02001 344: 1351-1357 \u00a0\n<\/p>\n \n24 Wood, Alastair J.J. \u201cRacial Differences in the Response to Drugs -- Pointers to Genetic Differences,\u201dN\u00a0Engl\u00a0J\u00a0Med\u00a02001 344: 1393-1396. \u00a0\n<\/p>\n \n25 William F. Owen, Jr; Glenn M. Chertow; J. Michael Lazarus; Edmund G. Lowrie; \u00a0\u201cDose ofHemodialysis and Survival: Differences by Race and Sex,\u201d\u00a0Journal\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0American\u00a0Medical\u00a0Association,Vol. 280 No. 20, 1998: 1764-1768.\n<\/p>\n \n26 Donald R. Lannin, Holly F. Mathews, Jim Mitchell, Melvin S. Swanson, Frances H. Swanson, Maxine S.Edwards; \u201cInfluence of Socioeconomic and Cultural Factors on Racial Differences in Late-StagePresentation of Breast Cancer,\u201d\u00a0Journal\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0American\u00a0Medical\u00a0Association, 279, 1998: 1801-1807.\n<\/p>\n \n27 Doctor's Guide, \u201cBlacks, Whites Benefit From Different Surgical Glaucoma Treatments,\u201d 1998:http:\/\/www.pslgroup.com\/dg\/8CC7E.htm<\/a>\n<\/p>\n \n28 Gary Sumner, \u201cEckman makes sickle cell disease a top priority,\u201d\u00a0Atlanta\u00a0Business\u00a0Chronicle,\u00a01998:http:\/\/atlanta.bcentral.com\/atlanta\/stories\/1998\/07\/27\/focus10.html<\/a>\n<\/p>\n \n29 Susan Duerksen,\u00a0\u201cStudy touts ACE inhibitor for blacks,\u201d\u00a0San\u00a0Diego\u00a0Union\u00a0Tribune,\u00a0June 6, 2001:http:\/\/www.uniontrib.com\/news\/metro\/20010606-9999_7m6kidney.html<\/a>\n<\/p>\n \n30 Susan Duerksen,\u00a0\u201cStudy touts ACE inhibitor for blacks,\u201dhttp:\/\/www.uniontrib.com\/news\/metro\/20010606-9999_7m6kidney.html\n<\/p>\n \n31 Robert R. Edwards, Daniel M. Doleys, Roger B. Fillingim, and Daniel Lowery; \u201cEthnic Differences inPain Tolerance: Clinical Implications in a Chronic Pain Population,\u201d\u00a0Journal\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0AmericanPsychosomatic\u00a0Society,\u00a0Vol 3 Number 2, 2001: 316.\n<\/p>\n \n32 Washington University School of Medicine,\u00a0ScienceDaily,\u00a02001:http:\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2001\/03\/010327080620.htm<\/a>\n<\/p>\n \n33 Jaques Samson and Madeline Yerles, \u201cRacial Differences in Sports Performance,\u201d\u00a0Canadian\u00a0Journal\u00a0ofSports\u00a0Science\u00a013, 1988: 110-111.\n<\/p>\n \n34 J. Jordan, \u201cPhysiological and Anthropometric Comparisons of \u00a0Negroes and Whites,\u201d\u00a0Journal\u00a0of\u00a0Health, Physical\u00a0Education,\u00a0and\u00a0Recreation\u00a040, 1969: 93-99. <\/p>\n \n35 Stanley M. Garn, \u201cHuman Biology and Research in Body Composition,\u201d\u00a0Annals\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0New\u00a0YorkAcademy\u00a0of\u00a0Sciences\u00a0110, 1963: 429-446\n<\/p>\n \n36 Garn, \u201cHuman Biology and Research in Body Composition,\u201d 429-446.\n<\/p>\n \n37 J.A. Cauley et al., \u201cBlack-White \u00a0Differences in Serum Sex Hormones and Bone Mineral Density,\u201dAmerican\u00a0Journal\u00a0of\u00a0Epidemiology, 139. 1994: 1035-1046.\n<\/p>\n \n38 Holly M. Cintos, \u201cCross-Cultural Variation in Infant Motor Development,\u201d\u00a0Physical\u00a0and\u00a0OccupationalTherapy\u00a0in\u00a0Pediatrics,\u00a08, 1998: 1-20.\n<\/p>\n \n39 Holly M. Cintos, \u201cCross-Cultural Variation in Infant Motor Development,\u201d 1-20.\n<\/p>\n \n40 J. E. Kilbride et al., \u201cThe Comparative Motor Development of Baganda, American White, and AmericanBlack Infants,\u201d\u00a0An\u00a0Anthropologist, 72, 1970: 1422-1428.\n<\/p>\n \n41 Ho, Khang-cheng, Roessmann, U., Straumfjord, J.V., & Monroe, G. (1980), \u201cAnalysis of brain weight,\u201cArchives\u00a0of\u00a0Pathology\u00a0and\u00a0Laboratory\u00a0Medicine, 104, 635-645.\n<\/p>\n \n42 Ho, Khang-cheng, Roessmann, U., Straumfjord, J.V., & Monroe, G. (1980), \u201cAnalysis of brain weight,\u201cArchives\u00a0of\u00a0Pathology\u00a0and\u00a0Laboratory\u00a0Medicine, 104, 635-645.\n<\/p>\n \n43 Kathryn N. North et al., \u201cA Common Nonsense Mutation Results in a-actinin-3 Deficiency in theGeneral Population,\u201d\u00a0Nature\u00a0Genetics\u00a021, 1999: 353-354.\n<\/p>\n \n44 Jaques Samson and Madeline Yerles, \u201cRacial Differences in Sports Performance,\u201d 110-111.\n<\/p>\n \n45 J. Dunn and M. Lupfer, \u201cA Comparison of Black and White Boys\u2019 Performance in Self-Paced andReactive Sports Activities,\u201d\u00a0Journal\u00a0of\u00a0Applied\u00a0Social\u00a0Psychology\u00a04, 1974, 25-35.\n<\/p>\n \n46 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, \u201cHIV\/AIDS Among African Americans,\u201dhttp:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/hiv\/pubs\/facts\/afam.htm\n<\/p>\n \n47 Gill, George W., \u201cDoes race exist? A proponent\u2019s perspective,\u201dhttp:\/\/www.pbs.org\/wgbh\/nova\/first\/gill.html\n<\/p>\n \n48 Gill, George W., \u201cDoes race exist? A proponent\u2019s perspective,\u201dhttp:\/\/www.pbs.org\/wgbh\/nova\/first\/gill.html\n<\/p>\n \n49 \u201cBlack people vulnerable to heart gene,\u201c\u00a0Circulation:\u00a0Journal\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0American\u00a0Heart\u00a0Association,\u00a0April,2001.\n<\/p>\n \n50 Sailer, Steve, \u201cAngier\u2019s wager and the Olympics,\u201c http:\/\/www.vdare.com\/sailer_olympics_2.htm<\/a>\n<\/p>\n \n51 Sailer, Steve, \u201cAngier\u2019s wager and the Olympics,\u201c http:\/\/www.vdare.com\/sailer_olympics_2.htm<\/a>\n<\/p>\n \n52 Sailer, Steve, \u201cMaking sense of the concept of race: A race is an extremely extended family,\u201d 1998,http:\/\/isteve.com\/makingsense.htm<\/a>\n<\/p>\n \n53 Rushton, J. Phillippe, \u201cRace as a biological concept,\u201d November 4, 1996,http:\/\/www.leconsulting.com\/arthurhu\/97\/06\/rushtonracebio.htm<\/a>\n<\/p>\n \n54 Talbot, Chris, \u201cHuman Genome Project: First scientific milestone of the twenty-firstcentury\u201d, July 11, 2000, http:\/\/www.wsws.org\/articles\/2000\/jul2000\/gen-j11.shtml<\/a>\n<\/p>\n \n55 Talbot, Chris, \u201cHuman Genome Project: First scientific milestone of the twenty-firstcentury\u201d, July 11, 2000, http:\/\/www.wsws.org\/articles\/2000\/jul2000\/gen-j11.shtml<\/a>\n<\/p>\n \n56 National Center for Biotechnology Information, \u201cGenes and disease,\u201dhttp:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/disease\/\n<\/p>\n \n57 CAVALLI-SFORZA, et al.:\u00a0History\u00a0and\u00a0Geography\u00a0of\u00a0Human\u00a0Genes:\u00a07.\n<\/p>\n \n58 Blum, Deborah. \u201cRace: many biologists argue for discarding the whole concept,\u201d\u00a0TheSacramento\u00a0Bee,\u00a0October 18, 1995, p. A12.\n<\/p>\n \n59 M. Nei and A. K. Roychoudhury. 1982. Genetic relationship and evolution of humanraces.\u00a0Evolutionary\u00a0Biology\u00a014: 1-59 \u00a0\n<\/p>\n \n60 Steve Sailer, \u201cWe Know They Said \u2018Created Equal.\u2019 But They Didn\u2019t Mean . . .\u201dhttp:\/\/www.vdare.com\/sailer_human_prop.htm\n<\/p>\n \n61 Gregory M Cochran, evolutionary biologist, quoted by Sailer, Steve, \u201cWe know theysaid \u2018created equal.\u2019 But they didn\u2019t mean...\u201d,http:\/\/www.vdare.com\/sailer_human_prop.htm<\/a>\n<\/p>\n \n62 See, e.g., Natalie Angier, \u201cDo Races Differ? Not Really, Genes Show,\u201d\u00a0The\u00a0New\u00a0YorkTimes,\u00a0August 22, 2000: F1.\n<\/p>\n \n63 Michael Rienzi, \u201cRace is a Myth? The left distorts science for political purposes,\u201dAmerican\u00a0Renaissance, Dec. 2000\n<\/p>\n \n64 CAVALLI-SFORZA, et al.:\u00a0History\u00a0and\u00a0Geography\u00a0of\u00a0Human\u00a0Genes:\u00a075\n<\/p>\n \n65 CAVALLI-SFORZA, et al.:\u00a0History\u00a0and\u00a0Geography\u00a0of\u00a0Human\u00a0Genes:\u00a0\u00a075\n<\/p>\n \n66 CAVALLI-SFORZA, et al.:\u00a0History\u00a0and\u00a0Geography\u00a0of\u00a0Human\u00a0Genes:\u00a075\n<\/p>\n \n67 CAVALLI-SFORZA, et al.:\u00a0History\u00a0and\u00a0Geography\u00a0of\u00a0Human\u00a0Genes:\u00a075\n<\/p>\n \n68 Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca,\u00a0Genes,\u00a0Peoples,\u00a0and\u00a0Languages,\u00a0North Point Press, 2000:12-13.\n<\/p>\n \n 69 Rushton, J. Phillipe,\u00a0Race,\u00a0Evolution,\u00a0and\u00a0Behavior,\u00a0Transaction Publishers, 1995: p.96.\n <\/p>\n \n 70 Reuters, \u201cDNA shows black genes in white Britons,\u201d May 20 2001:http:\/\/dailynews.yahoo.com\/h\/nm\/20010519\/sc\/science_britain_black_dc_1.html<\/a>\n <\/p>\n \n 71 Charles Petit, \u201cNO BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR RACE, SCIENTISTS SAY -Distinctions prove to be skin deep,\u201d\u00a0The\u00a0San\u00a0Francisco\u00a0Chronicle, Monday, February 23,1998: http:\/\/www.sfgate.com\/cgi-bin\/article.cgi?file=\/chronicle\/archive\/1998\/02\/23\/MN94378.DTL&type=special#The%20San%20Francisco%20Chronicle<\/a>\n <\/p>\n \n72 Charles Petit, \u201cNo Biological basis for race, scientists say--Distinctions prove to beskin deep,\u201d http:\/\/www.sfgate.com\/cgi-bin\/article.cgi?file=\/chronicle\/archive\/1998\/02\/23\/MN94378.DTL&type=special#The%20San%20Francisco%20Chronicle<\/a>\n <\/p>\n \n73 See, e.g., Paur R. Spickard, \u201cThe Illogic of American Racial Categories,\u201d\u00a0PBS\u00a0Online:http:\/\/www.pbs.org\/wgbh\/pages\/frontline\/shows\/jefferson\/mixed\/spickard.html<\/a>\n <\/p>\n \n 74 American Anthropological Association,\u00a0American\u00a0Anthropological\u00a0AssociationStatement\u00a0on\u00a0\"Race\", 2000: http:\/\/www.aaanet.org\/stmts\/racepp.htm<\/a>\n <\/p>\n \n 75 Michael Rienzi, \u201cRace is a Myth? The left distorts science for political purposes,\u201dAmerican\u00a0Renaissance, Dec. 2000\n <\/p>\n \n 76 Michael Rienzi, \u201cRace is a Myth? The left distorts science for political purposes,\u201dAmerican\u00a0Renaissance, Dec. 2000\n <\/p>\n \n 77 See, e.g., Cavalli-Sforza,\u00a0Genes,\u00a0Peoples,\u00a0and\u00a0Languages,\u00a0North Point Press, 2000: 25.\n <\/p>\n \n 78\u00a0CAVALLI-SFORZA, et al.:\u00a0History\u00a0and\u00a0Geography\u00a0of\u00a0Human\u00a0Genes,\u00a0PrincetonUniversity Press, 1994: 11-16.\n <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" This paper will start by making an assertion that many politically correct academics wouldconsider frustrating, alarming and infuriating: \u201cRace exists as a biological concept.\u201d \u00a0\u00a0Despite theunpopularity of the idea that race exists, slightly over half of all biological\/physical anthropologiststoday believe … Continue reading