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4 Problems with Transhumanism – Human Life International

Posted: February 2, 2023 at 11:49 pm

Most transhumanists emphasize only the benefits that their movement would supposedly bring to the human race. Perhaps they omit possible problems because, like all Culture of Death movements, they lack even the most fundamental understanding of human nature. So their primary problem seems to be not dishonesty, but ignorance.

Ever since humanitys beginnings, we seem to have possessed an innate capability to murder each other. This urge manifests itself in many ways. For example, we first thoroughly examine any emerging technology in order to assess its potential to either wage war or to support it (although to be fair, an amazing number of inventions have emerged from war-related research).These inventions and techniques include computers, nuclear power, tracked vehicles, flashlights, practical jet engines, air traffic control, radar, radio navigation, synthetic rubber and oil, pressurized cabins for aircraft, drones, and countless medical advances such as penicillin and mobile X-ray machines.

Some transhumanists recognize this danger: Julian Savulescu, Director of The Oxford Center for Neuroethics, believes that making humans much more intelligent will endanger our race because of our propensity to evaluate new tech as weaponry as soon as it appears. Without doubt, the practical application of transhumanism would produce devastating weapons of war. Imagine facing a nation that could field entire battalions of Captain Americas!

Because of the possibility of transhumans bringing mass destruction to our own race, Savulescu would like to accompany our physical enhancements with an improved system of morality via genetic engineering and hormone therapy in order to make us more cooperative and altruistic. In other words, we would all become designer babies.

The problem, of course, is the question of who decides what is moral. Under a transhumanist regime, the true Christian vision would be entirely shut out because it would refuse to cooperate, knowing that being artificially reconstructed physically, mentally and morally is certainly not Gods will for our lives. So the elite, despite their dismal record, would be left to make the decisions. Savulescu argues that, since we already allow embryo selection and selective abortions to eliminate diseased embryos and fetuses, there should be no objection to using these methods to choose other genetic traits.1

This shows that the Christian vision is already being ignored during the long march to the Singularity.

The third point of the Transhumanist Declaration states, We recognize that humanity faces serious risks, especially from the misuse of new technologies. There are possible realistic scenarios that lead to the loss of most, or even all, of what we hold valuable. For Christians, a world without our Savior would be the ultimate nightmare.

Nobody not even transhumanists denies that the Humanity+ movement will lead to even greater disparities between rich and poor. Just look at our record regarding inequality between the developed and developing nations.

The average life span of Americans has improved from 48 years in 1900 to 79 years now.2 The great majority of this is due to the availability of clean drinking water and better health care. However, more than one-fourth of Africans do not even have clean drinking water.3 Even multi-billionaires like Bill Gates recognize this disparity; he said, It seems pretty egocentric while we still have malaria and TB [tuberculosis] for rich people to fund things so they can live longer.

Members of the unthinking elite always lead the charge into morally questionable activities. If it makes them feel progressive and good about themselves, they are all for it!

The world has always been populated with Utopians, those who desire a perfect world. This concept has taken many forms, from massive social movements such as Communism, Socialism and Nazism to tiny communes in Oregon.

The grander visions are invariably doomed to fail because, in order to get to the final point, there must be an intermediate stage where a strictly authoritarian regime takes over and reorganizes society in order to realize the Utopia. The most common of such systems, Communism, would be a perfect system for humanity if not for our pesky imperfect human nature and the worship we owe to our Creator. And so, after the authoritarians take over, they get comfortable on top of the heap and simply cannot let go of control. So millions die while millions more live in abject misery.

The process of establishing an ideal society must always include the coercion and the exclusion of those who refuse to go along. Anyone who thinks that life-enhancing and life-extending technology (which will inevitably be hugely expensive) will not also lead to a have-have not society is criminally nave. And those who think that transhumanism will not lead to unheard-of atrocities are equally oblivious. As already mentioned, Culture of Death movements cannot admit defeat; they simply claim that their ideas werent taken far enough, and are always eager to try again.As historian Elof Carlson writes, Eugenics failed because it was not scientific enough.The role of eugenics in our time is in maximizing [hereditary] information and its availability to those who need it and minimizing the temptation to use the State as the means of enforcing eugenic ideals.4

Eugenicists always accompany their bland assurances with such empty promises.

Liberals claim to be outraged by the great gulf between the resources allotted to the poor and to the rich. Well, with transhumanism, we can say they aint seen nothin yet!

We have always had eugenics with us, from societies that simply discarded sick newborns outside the city gates to the social engineers in a dozen European nations who deemed who is worthy of life and who is not. If the transhumanist idea of self-evolution sounds familiar, it should; it is the latest and most virulent expression of the movement that spawned Germanys Holocaust.

Of most concern to pro-lifers is that transhumanism will have a profound impact upon human procreation if it becomes the dominant philosophy. The most influential transhumanist thinkers believe that all babies should be conceived via artificial means using the gametes of licensed parents, then thoroughly screened in order to eliminate all defects, and grown in synthetic wombs to ensure that only the fittest humans are produced. As one transhumanist writer has said, When responsible child rearing is more highly valued than biological parenthood, we will be procreating as transhumans.

This is not a new idea. In 1992, Time Magazine speculated:

It is reasonable to ask whether there will be a family at all. Given the propensity for divorce, the growing number of adults who choose to remain single, the declining popularity of having children and the evaporation of the time families spend together, another way may eventually evolve. It may be quicker and more efficient to dispense with family-based reproduction. Society could then produce its future generations in institutions that might resemble state-sponsored baby hatcheries.5

We have already embarked upon what will become the latest corpse-strewn march to perfection; more than 90% of all Downs syndrome children detected before birth are aborted in most Western nations, and Iceland now publicly brags that it has entirely eliminated them. In a transhumanist system, perfection is the primary survival trait. And, if the history of earlier eugenics movements is any indication, so will be the color of ones skin.

Interestingly, the 1997 movie Gattaca shows us what a transhumanist society would look like. It depicts a society sharply divided into two categories of people the Valids, who have been conceived with IVF and have been thoroughly screened, and the Invalids, conceived naturally. The Valids have their choice of occupations, and whatever is left over is assigned to the Invalids.

Already, some of the elite are (perhaps) unconsciously imitating the film. One of these is Julian Savulescu, who promotes what he calls procreative beneficence. He claims that it would be better for society if we allow only genetically superior children to be born: If we have the power to intervene in the nature of our offspring rather than consigning them to the natural lottery then we should. His general plan, which is eerily reminiscent of the Nazis Lebensborn eugenics program, is to enlist the genetically superior to create millions of embryos via in-vitro fertilization, apply rigorous preimplantation genetic diagnosis to all of them, and then implant only the best. He does not give us many details on what kind of people he considers superior, but, based upon descriptions provided by many previous eugenicists, we can make an educated guess.

In short, in the minds of influential transhumanist thinkers, a transhumanist society would be a society of test-tube babies, created apart from the natural environment of human conception.

The first casualty of such Utopian visions is common sense, brought on by an utter ignorance of human nature. The second thing to be tossed aside is personal choice. It is human nature to want to keep up with others. Once some people begin to augment themselves, others will feel compelled to do the same, by removing and replacing perfectly good eyes, ears and limbs just to keep up at their jobs and in their social circles. At this point, transhumanism will make man a slave to the technology he craves. And the wise know that there is no happiness or contentment in slavery, whether it be to drugs, sex, fashion, money, power or the latest style of artificial arm.

These grand projects may seem ludicrous, but we should remember that revolutions always begin with just a handful of people talking about them people like Margaret Sanger, Jack Kevorkian, Larry Lader and Bernard Nathanson (before he reformed).

And their revolutions always end in death.

[1] Richard Weikart. Can We Make Ourselves More Moral? Designer Babies, Hormone Therapy, and the New Eugenics of Transhumanism. Lifeissues.net, June 6, 2016.

[2] United States Census Bureau. Statistical Abstract of the United States(Washington, D.C., 2012 Edition), Table 104, Expectation of Life at Birth, 1970 to 2008, and Projections, 2010 to 2020.

[3] The 2016 Edition of the CIA World Factbook.

[4] Jan Witkowski and John Inglis, editors. Davenports Dream: 21st Century Reflections on Heredity and Eugenics. Cold Spring Harbor, New York: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2008.[6] Kyle Munkittrick. When Will We Be Transhuman? Seven Conditions for Attaining Transhumanism. Discover, July 16, 2011.

[5] Time Magazine Fall 1992 Special Issue titled Beyond the Year 2000: What to Expect in the New Millennium.

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4 Problems with Transhumanism - Human Life International

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Transhumanism: Examining the risks, benefits, and ethical implications …

Posted: January 25, 2023 at 8:06 am

A thought-provoking exploration of the future possibilities of humanity

Transhumanism is a movement that seeks to use technology to enhance human physical and cognitive abilities and extend human life beyond its current limits. The idea behind transhumanism is that technology can be used to overcome some of the limitations of human nature, such as disease, ageing, and physical limitations. However, there could be a link between self-destructive human nature and the advancement of transhumanism. This paper will talk about the possible risks and benefits of transhumanism, as well as the ethical issues that need to be thought about to make sure that technology is used in a safe and responsible way. [1]

One possible benefit of transhumanism is that it could help people get past some of their own problems. The technology could, for example, be used to make people live longer, improve their physical and mental abilities, and treat or cure diseases. An example of this is the use of brain-computer interfaces (BCIs), which allow people to control computers and other devices using their thoughts. BCIs are being made to help people who have disabilities, but they could also be used to make people smarter. [2] Another example of this is the use of robotics and prosthetics that can replace or enhance human limbs. For example, researchers are working on developing robotic limbs that can be controlled by the users thoughts. [3] Additionally, artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) is being used to analyse large amounts of biomedical data to identify new treatments for diseases. [4] Another example of the technology enhancement is the use of virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR), which are being used to enhance human perception and interaction with the environment. [5]

Cryogenic suspension, also known as cryonics, is the process of freezing a persons body or brain with the goal of preserving it for future revival [15]. Cryogenic suspension companies such as Alcor Life Extension Foundation, Cryonics Institute, American Cryonics Society, and KrioRus offer these services [16]. Cryonauts are people who allow themselves to freeze with the hope of being thawed if technology develops to the point that their disease can be cured [17]. Cryogenic suspension raises ethical and moral considerations, including issues of autonomy and the definition of death [18]. Its important to remember that cryogenic suspension is still just a theory, and its not possible to bring someone back to life who has been frozen [19].

Transhumanism has the potential to change the way society operates, from the way we work and interact with each other to the way we think about human nature. The enhancement of human abilities and extended lifespans could have a significant impact on labour markets, with the potential for increased productivity and a shift in the types of jobs that are in demand. [6] The healthcare system may also be affected, and there may be a higher demand for treatments and procedures that help people improve their abilities. Furthermore, social welfare programmes may be affected as the increased longevity may result in changes in the age structure of the population and put pressure on the pension and healthcare systems. [7]

Transhumanism brings up a lot of moral and ethical questions, such as those about inequality, autonomy, and what it means to be human.One of the main concerns is the potential for transhumanism to exacerbate existing inequalities, with access to these technologies being limited to certain individuals or groups. [8] Additionally, the use of technology to enhance human abilities raises questions about autonomy and control over ones own body. [9] Furthermore, transhumanism challenges the traditional understanding of what it means to be human, raising questions about the limits of human nature and the relationship between technology and humanity. [10]

Transhumanism is an ever-evolving field, with new technologies and developments emerging all the time. Some of the most notable current and future technological developments in transhumanism include gene editing, brain-machine interfaces (BMIs), cybernetic enhancements, artificial general intelligence (AGI) and artificial superintelligence (ASI), virtual and augmented reality, and mind uploading. [11]

Transhumanism has the potential to affect global politics, international relations, and national security in a number of ways. One of the most significant potential implications of transhumanism on global politics is the impact on military capabilities. The enhancement of human abilities and extended lifespans could lead to the development of soldiers who are stronger, smarter, and able to operate for longer periods of time without rest. This could have a significant impact on the nature of warfare and lead to an arms race between nations. [12] In terms of international relations, transhumanism has the potential to create a divide between enhanced and unenhanced nations, with the former having access to technologies and opportunities that the latter does not. This could lead to increased tension and conflict between nations. [13] Finally, transhumanism also has the potential to affect national security, as the enhancement of human abilities and extended lifespans could lead to the development of soldiers who are stronger, smarter, and able to operate for longer periods of time without rest, which could affect the balance of power between different countries. [14]

In conclusion, transhumanism is a movement that seeks to use technology to enhance human physical and cognitive abilities and extend human life beyond its current limits [17]. This paper has discussed the potential risks and benefits of transhumanism, as well as the ethical and moral considerations that must be taken into account in order to ensure that technology is used in a responsible and safe manner [20]. Cryogenic suspension, which is a specific application of transhumanism, is also discussed as an example of the ethical and moral considerations that must be taken into account [15]. Recommendations for future research and policy development include continued research and development of transhumanist technologies, with a focus on safety and ethical considerations [20], further study of the potential social and economic implications of transhumanism [21], the development of policies and regulations that can mitigate any negative consequences while maximising the benefits of transhumanism [22], and encouraging a broad public dialogue about the ethical and moral considerations surrounding transhumanism [23]. Furthermore, it is important to note that the field of transhumanism is still largely unregulated, and further research on specific laws and regulations in different countries and jurisdictions would provide a more comprehensive overview of the current policy and regulations related to transhumanism [24].

[1] B. D. Ross, Transhumanism: An ontology of the worlds most dangerous idea, University of North Texas, 2019.

[2] S. Saha et al., Progress in brain computer interface: Challenges and opportunities, Front. Syst. Neurosci., vol. 15, p. 578875, 2021.

[3] C. G. Y. Ngan, R. M. I. Kapsa, and P. F. M. Choong, Strategies for neural control of prosthetic limbs: from electrode interfacing to 3D printing, Materials (Basel), vol. 12, no. 12, p. 1927, 2019.

[4] T. Hulsen, Literature analysis of artificial intelligence in biomedicine, Ann. Transl. Med., vol. 10, no. 23, p. 1284, 2022.

[5] G. Guazzaroni, Virtual and augmented reality in mental health treatment. Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2018.

[6] Digital automation and the future of work, Europa.eu. [Online]. Available: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/stoa/en/document/EPRS_STU(2021)656311. [Accessed: 20-Jan-2023].

[7] J. D. F. Teixeira, Transhumanism, immortality and the question of longevity, Rev. Filos. Aurora, vol. 32, no. 55, 2020.

[8] GLP Digital, Transhumanism and inequality: Enhancing human life could bring dystopian consequences, Genetic Literacy Project, 21-Sep-2017. [Online]. Available: https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2017/09/21/transhumanism-inequality-enhancing-human-life-bring-dystopian-consequences/. [Accessed: 20-Jan-2023].

[9] M. J. McNamee and S. D. Edwards, Transhumanism, medical technology and slippery slopes, J. Med. Ethics, vol. 32, no. 9, pp. 513518, 2006.

[10] N. Bostrom, J.-K. Berg Olsen, E. Selinger, and S. Riis, The future of humanity, Nickbostrom.com. [Online]. Available: https://nickbostrom.com/papers/future.pdf. [Accessed: 20-Jan-2023].

[11] V. C. Mller, Ethics of artificial intelligence and robotics, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2021.

[12] Transhumanism and war, Global Policy Journal. [Online]. Available: https://www.globalpolicyjournal.com/blog/18/05/2015/transhumanism-and-war. [Accessed: 20-Jan-2023].

[13] Reflections on the posthuman in international relations the anthropocene, security and ecology, E-ir.info. [Online]. Available: https://www.e-ir.info/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Reflections-on-the-Posthuman-in-IR-E-IR.pdf. [Accessed: 20-Jan-2023].

[14] V. Shchipkov, Ideology of transhumanism as a threat to national security, SSRN Electron. J., 2021.

[15] Bedford suspension, Alcor, 08-Aug-2020. [Online]. Available: https://www.alcor.org/library/bedford-suspension/. [Accessed: 20-Jan-2023].

[16] Alcor life extension foundation, Alcor, 14-Nov-2019. [Online]. Available: https://www.alcor.org/. [Accessed: 20-Jan-2023].

[17] R. C. W. Ettinger, The prospect of immortality. Ria University Press, 2005.

[18] D. Shaw, Cryoethics: seeking life after death, Bioethics, vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 515521, 2009.

[19] T. H. Jang et al., Cryopreservation and its clinical applications, Integr. Med. Res., vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1218, 2017.

[20] N. Bostrom, Transhumanist Ethics, Nickbostrom.com. [Online]. Available: https://nickbostrom.com/ethics/transhumanist.pdf. [Accessed: 20-Jan-2023].

[21] S. D. De Hart and J. P. Farrell, Transhumanism: A Grimoire of Alchemical Agendas. Feral House, 2012.

[22] Transhumanist bill of rights version 3.0 U.s. transhumanist party official website, Transhumanist-party.org. [Online]. Available: https://transhumanist-party.org/tbr-3/. [Accessed: 20-Jan-2023].

[23] Connecting public dialogue with policy in nanomedicine, Softmachines.org. [Online]. Available: http://www.softmachines.org/wordpress/?page_id=866. [Accessed: 20-Jan-2023].

[24] M. Lacalle Noriega, Transhumanism and law: from human nature to self-determination as the foundation of human rights, Cuad. Bioet., vol. 32, no. 105, pp. 225235, 2021.

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Noted Transhumanist Now Targeting Our Children: Whats inside Yuval …

Posted: January 10, 2023 at 6:55 pm

Guest post by Leo Hohmann

Deborah DeGroff is an author and expert on childrens books, which she analyzes from a biblical perspective. In herlatest article, she peels back the layers of deception in a new book by noted globalist, futurist and transhumanist Yuval Noah Harari.

Some have described Harari, a gifted storyteller, as one of the worlds mostdangerous men. He serves as one of Klaus Schwabs top advisers at the World Economic Forum, has written many books and is a sought-after speaker not only at the WEF but on college campuses worldwide. He has stated that he believes humans are hackable animals devoid of a free will or a soul and that because we accepted mass surveillance during the Covid lockdowns, its just a matter of time before we accept the next step in a coming global technocracy placing that surveillance under the skin.

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But with a brand-new book hitting the bookstores, this marks Hararis first attempt to get at our children. The book, targeting 10 to 14-year-olds, is being heavily marketed and will be the first in a four-part series, so the chances your child or grandchild will come in contact with it at some point are pretty high.

Here is DeGroffs penetrating look at one of the worlds most dangerous men and how hes working to get access to the minds of our most vulnerable and impressionable our children.

By Deborah DeGroff

Who is Yuval Noah Harari and why has he become so influential? What is his message? Does his heavily-marketed new book for children echo the same sentiments he so adamantly feeds his adult audiences?

Professor Yuval Noah Harari is a historian, philosopher, and the bestselling author ofSapiens: A Brief History of Humankind,Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow,21 Lessons for the 21st Century,andSapiens: A Graphic History. His books have sold over 40 million copies in 65 languages, and he is considered one of the worlds most influential public intellectuals today. [Clickhereto read the complete bio on Hararis website.]

Harari was a keynote speaker at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, in both 2018 and 2020. His speeches and interviews on various media platforms are watched by millions.

Harari is not shy about stating his beliefs. In a nutshell, in Hararis gospel there is no God, no soul, and no freewill. Once these pillars are accepted as truth by his followersmany of whom are in positions of powerthe next step will be deciding the fate of billions of people who are no longer necessary in a future world that consists of artificial intelligence, biotechnology, and transhumanism.

Hararis book,Sapiens,wasendorsed by Mark Zuckerberg, Bill Gates, and Barak Obama.

Christopher Carbone wrote the article,Humans Will Eventually Merge With Machines, Professor Says,for Fox News in July 2019, stating:

Its increasingly hard to tell where I end and where the computer begins,Harari, a professor of history at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, told the audience at the Fast Company European Innovation Festival. In the future, it is likely that the smartphone will not be separated from you at all. It may be embedded in your body or brain, constantly scanning your biometric data and your emotions.

Harari continued: If we told our ancestors in the Stone Age about our lives today, they would think we are already Gods. But the truth is that even though we have developed more sophisticated tools, we are the same animals. We have the same emotions, the same minds. The coming revolution will change that. It will change not just our tools, it will change the human being itself.

In his speech at the 2020 World Economic Forum in Davos, Harari informed his audience that automation will soon eliminate millions upon millions of jobs (creating a large class of useless people). Harari stated:

Old jobs will disappear, new jobs will emerge, but then the new jobs will rapidly change and vanish. Whereas in the past humans had to struggle against exploitation, in the 21st century the really big struggle will be against irrelevance.

And it is much worse to be irrelevant than exploited.

Those who fail in the struggle against irrelevance would constitute a new useless class people who are useless not from the viewpoint of their friends and family, but useless from the viewpoint of the economic and political system.

. . . And what will happen to politics in your country in twenty years, when somebody in San Francisco or Beijing knows the entire medical and personal history of every politician, every judge and every journalist in your country, including all their sexual escapades, all their mental weaknesses and all their corrupt dealings? Will it still be an independent country or will it become a data-colony?

When you have enough data you dont need to send soldiers, in order to control a country.

. . . If you know enough biology and have enough computing power and data, you can hack my body and my brain and my life, and you can understand me better than I understand myself. . . . You know more about me than I know about myself. And you can do that not just to me, but to everyone.

A system that understands us better than we understand ourselves can predict our feelings and decisions, can manipulate our feelings and decisions, and can ultimately make decisions for us.

. . . But soon at least some corporations and governments will be able to systematically hack all the people. We humans should get used to the idea that we are no longer mysterious souls we are now hackable animals. Thats what we are.

. . . In the coming decades, AI and biotechnology will give us godlike abilities to reengineer life, and even to create completely new life-forms. After four billion years of organic life shaped by natural selection, we are about to enter a new era of inorganic life shaped by intelligent design.

Our intelligent design is going to be the new driving force of the evolution of life. . .[Clickhereto read the speech]

Chris Anderson, head of TED media, interviewed Harari in August 2022. Anderson commented that Harari strongly recommends meditation. Harari responded that he meditates for two hours each day and that he does the Vipassana meditation, which he learned from S.N. Goenka.

And . . . my yearly vacation is to go on a long retreat of between say 30 days and 60 days. I just came back last month from a 60-day meditation retreat, Harari says. [Clickhereto listen, starting at 45:20.]

During this interview, Harari tells Anderson he isnt against technology as it can bring enormous benefits to humanity as a whole. He continues that he met [his] husband online in one of the first dating sites for LGBT people in Israel in the early 2000s. [Clickhereto listen. This begins at 40:29.]

Yuval Noah Harari holds great influence with many people in positions of power. Up until recently, this audience has consisted of adults.

Now, Harari is introducing his message to children.

Autumn 2022 saw Harari venturing into the world of childrens books, with the pre-teen seriesUnstoppable Us.Here, he tells the unbelievable true story of humans our all-conquering and insatiable species in a way that is accessible to kids. The series will be published in four volumes, featuring full-color illustrations, starting withUnstoppable Us,Volume 1: How Humans Took Over the World.

Harari includes a Timeline of History at the beginning ofUnstoppable Us.

PART 1, HISTORY OF HUMANITY

He begins with 6 million years ago with a picture of an upright creature that is a cross between a human and an ape. The caption reads that this was the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees.

He follows with a jump to the 2.5 million years ago mark in which he states that Humans evolve in Africa. The Gospel of Harari moves forward another half-million years with the [e]volution of different kinds of humans.

By 400,000 years ago, Neanderthals evolve in Europe and the Middle East and 300,000 years ago, Sapiens evolve in Africa. 70,000 years ago, the Sapiens leave Africa in large numbers. 35,000 years ago the Neanderthals are extinct and Sapiens are the last surviving kind of human.

Planet Earth was once ruled by many different animals . . . But now we humans rule everything: the land, the sea, and the sky. . . . The only reason lions, dolphins, and eagles still exist is because we allow them to.

He concludes this introduction with, AND its a true story.

Chapter 1 teaches the children that millions of years ago, we were just ordinary animals who ate worms and climbed trees to pick fruit. Until humans learned to make tools, the other animals werent afraid of them.

Harari explains that when kids wake up in the night frightened that there are monsters under their beds that this is simply a memory from millions of years ago . . . [when] monsters . . . sneaked up on children in the night. His example is of a lion coming to eat the child. This idea is repeated in the closing of his book.

Next, the humans invented fire.

A single weak human with a fire stick could burn down an entire forest in a matter of hours, destroying thousands of trees and killing thousands of animals.

Now, the humans could cook their food. As a result, humans started to change: they had smaller teeth, smaller stomachs . . . and much more free time.

Harari expands on this by stating that some scientists suggest it was cooking that made it possible for the human brain to start growing.

Once they started cooking . . . humans could spend far less energy chewing and digesting and had more energy to feed big brains. Their stomachs shrank, their brains grew, and people got smarter.

In the next chapter, the children learn that our planet was actually home to many different kinds of humans.

Harari introduces the Floresians and follows with the bigger-brained Neanderthals, and the Denisovans. However, according to him, the Sapiens eventually killed off all of these ancestors.

. . . when the new super-Sapiens reached Europe, they picked allthe pears, ate all the berries, and hunted all the deer. This meant that the local Neanderthals had nothing left to eat, so they died of hunger. And if any Neanderthals tried to stop the Sapiens from taking all the food, the Sapiens probably killed them.

Then our ancestors went to Siberia and took all the food from the Denisovans. And then they went to Flores, and . . . soon there wasnt a single small human or small elephant to be found. And when all the other humans were gone, our ancestors still werent satisfied. Although they were now incredibly powerful, they wanted even more power and more food, so they sometimes fought one another.

The next chapter begins with, You see, we Sapiens are not very nice animals. Often, he concludes, this is due to different skin colors, languages, or religions.

But a few years ago, scientists discovered that at least some of our Sapiens ancestors didnt kill or starve all the other humans they met.

Harari explains that because of our knowledge of DNA, scientists have determined that some Neanderthals had children with Sapiens.I guess Harariintends for these middle-grade students to conclude that some people today are not 100% evil since they have some Neanderthal DNA . . .

Harari then speculates as to what the world would be like today if our ancestors had been nicer and had allowed the Neanderthals and the Floresians to go on living and developing.

PART 2: GOD IS JUST A FAIRY TALE

In Part 2 of the book, Hararis explains why and how Sapiens ended up ruling the world. He says cooperation is what makes us so powerful.

Harari then poses the question:

How did our ancestors learn to cooperate in large numbers in the first place, and how come we can constantly change our behavior?

[Its] our ability to dream up stuff that isnt really there and to tell all kinds of imaginary stories.

If thousands of people believe in the same story, then theyll all follow the same rules, which means they can cooperate effectively.

Lets say a Sapiens tells everyone this story: Theres a Great Lion Spirit that lives above the clouds. If you obey the Great Lion Spirit, then when you die, youll go the land of the spirits, and youll have all the bananas you can eat. But if you disobey the Great Lion Spirit, a big lion will come and eat you!

Of course, this story isnt true at all. But if a thousand people believe it, theyll all start doing whatever the story tells them to do.

He expands on thisjust in case itwent over any of the kids heads. If you say, The Great Lion Spirit wants everyone to give a banana to the priest in the temple, and in return, when they die, theyll receive lots and lots of bananas in the land of the spirits, then a thousand people will bring bananas to the priest.

You could never persuade a chimpanzee to give you a banana by promising him that when he dies, hell go to chimpanzee heaven and have all the bananas he can eat . . . only Sapiens believe stories like that. And thats why we rule the world, whereas poor chimps are locked up in zoos.

Some go fight people on the other side of the world because they believe that a god told them to. Others give lots of money to construct a big building because they believe that a god wants it.

Harari next informs the kids about one of the most interesting games grown-ups play . . . called corporation. He uses McDonalds Corporation as an illustration and informs the children that although you can go to the restaurants or talk to the employees, what they see is not McDonalds as it exists only in our imagination.

. . . If you want to open a restaurant but you dont want to risk losing your socks or going to jail, you create a corporation. And then the corporation does everything and takes all the risks.

The corporation borrows money from the bank, and if it cant repay the money, nobody can blame you for it, and nobody can take your house or your socks. After all, the bank gave the money to the corporation, not to you. And if somebody eats a burger and gets a really nasty stomachache, nobody can hold you responsible. You didnt make that burgerthe corporation did.

Well, money is also just another imaginary story that grown-ups believe. [Bankers and politicians] tell stories like This small piece of paper is worth ten bananas, and the grown-ups believe them.

. . . humans can quickly change the way we behave by simply changing the stories we believe.

Harari then uses France to illustrate the next point he wants to make:

People believed that a great god above the clouds said that France must be ruled by a king and that all French people must do whatever the king commanded. . . . But as long as French people believed this story, they obeyed their king.

He follows with a story about a kings daughter that wanted to rule France.You cant rule France, they said, because the great god above the clouds doesnt like girls very much. The great god above the clouds is a boy, so he made boys much smarter and braver than girls. So a girl cant rule the kingdom of France. Only boys can.And because people believed the story, they wouldnt let girls become rulers. In fact, they wouldnt let them do all sorts of things: . . .

But there are two important things to remember: people need stories in order to cooperate, and they can change the way they cooperate by changing the stories they believe.

On page 72, Harari suggests that someone might have told them stories such as:

The Great Lion Spirit wants us to get rid of the Neanderthals . . . [they] are very strong, but dont worry. Even if a Neanderthal kills you, thats actually a good thing because youll go to the land of the spirits above the clouds, where the Great Lion Spirit will welcome you and give you lots of blueberries and giraffe steaks to eat.

And people believed the story, so they cooperated to get rid of the Neanderthals.

. . . This belief in stories gave our ancestors so much power that they spread all over the world, conquering every land on the planet.

HARARIS CORRUPTED VIEW OF THE FAMILY

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Humans Will Never Colonize Mars – Gizmodo

Posted: at 6:55 pm

The suggestion that humans will soon set up bustling, long-lasting colonies on Mars is something many of us take for granted. What this lofty vision fails to appreciate, however, are the monumentalif not intractablechallenges awaiting colonists who want to permanently live on Mars. Unless we radically adapt our brains and bodies to the harsh Martian environment, the Red Planet will forever remain off limits to humans.

Mars is the closest thing we have to Earth in the entire solar system, and thats not saying much.

The Red Planet is a cold, dead place, with an atmosphere about 100 times thinner than Earths. The paltry amount of air that does exist on Mars is primarily composed of noxious carbon dioxide, which does little to protect the surface from the Suns harmful rays. Air pressure on Mars is very low; at 600 Pascals, its only about 0.6 percent that of Earth. You might as well be exposed to the vacuum of space, resulting in a severe form of the bendsincluding ruptured lungs, dangerously swollen skin and body tissue, and ultimately death. The thin atmosphere also means that heat cannot be retained at the surface. The average temperature on Mars is -81 degrees Fahrenheit (-63 degrees Celsius), with temperatures dropping as low as -195 degrees F (-126 degrees C). By contrast, the coldest temperature ever recorded on Earth was at Vostok Station in Antarctica, at -128 degrees F (-89 degrees C) on June 23, 1982. Once temperatures get below the -40 degrees F/C mark, people who arent properly dressed for the occasion can expect hypothermia to set in within about five to seven minutes.

Mars also has less mass than is typically appreciated. Gravity on the Red Planet is 0.375 that of Earths, which means a 180-pound person on Earth would weigh a scant 68 pounds on Mars. While that might sound appealing, this low-gravity environment would likely wreak havoc to human health in the long term, and possibly have negative impacts on human fertility.

Yet despite these and a plethora of other issues, theres this popular idea floating around that well soon be able to set up colonies on Mars with ease. SpaceX CEO Elon Musk is projecting colonies on Mars as early as the 2050s, while astrobiologist Lewis Darnell, a professor at the University of Westminster, has offered a more modest estimate, saying itll be about 50 to 100 years before substantial numbers of people have moved to Mars to live in self-sustaining towns. The United Arab Emirates is aiming to build a Martian city of 600,000 occupants by 2117, in one of the more ambitious visions of the future.

Illustration: Soviet artist Andrei Sokolov (mid-1960s)

Sadly, this is literally science fiction. While theres no doubt in my mind that humans will eventually visit Mars and even build a base or two, the notion that well soon set up colonies inhabited by hundreds or thousands of people is pure nonsense, and an unmitigated denial of the tremendous challenges posed by such a prospect.

Pioneering astronautics engineer Louis Friedman, co-founder of the Planetary Society and author of Human Spaceflight: From Mars to the Stars, likens this unfounded enthusiasm to the unfulfilled visions proposed during the 1940s and 1950s.

Back then, cover stories of magazines like Popular Mechanics and Popular Science showed colonies under the oceans and in the Antarctic, Friedman told Gizmodo. The feeling was that humans would find a way to occupy every nook and cranny of the planet, no matter how challenging or inhospitable, he said. But this just hasnt happened. We make occasional visits to Antarctica and we even have some bases there, but thats about it. Under the oceans its even worse, with some limited human operations, but in reality its really very, very little. As for human colonies in either of these environments, not so much. In fact, not at all, despite the relative ease at which we could achieve this.

After the Moon landings, Friedman said he and his colleagues were hugely optimistic about the future, believing we would do more and more things, such as place colonies on Mars and the Moon, but the fact is, no human spaceflight program, whether Apollo, the Space Shuttle Program, or the International Space Station, has established the necessary groundwork for setting up colonies on Mars, such as building the required infrastructure, finding safe and viable ways of sourcing food and water, mitigating the deleterious effects of radiation and low gravity, among other issues. Unlike other fields, development into human spaceflight, he said, has become static. Friedman agreed that well likely build bases on Mars, but the evidence of history suggests colonization is unlikely for the foreseeable future.

Neuroscientist Rachael Seidler from the University of Florida says many people today fail to appreciate how difficult itll be to sustain colonies on the Red Planet.

People like to be optimistic about the idea of colonizing Mars, Seidler, a specialist in motor learning and the effects of microgravity on astronauts, told Gizmodo. But it also sounds a bit pie-in-the-sky, she said. A lot of people approach it as thinking we shouldnt limit ourselves based on practicalities, but I agree, there are a lot of potential negative physiological consequences.

Seidler said NASA and other space agencies are currently working very hard to create and test countermeasures for the various negative impacts of living on Mars. For example, astronauts on the ISS, who are subject to tremendous muscle and bone loss, try to counteract the effects by doing strength and aerobic training while up in space. As for treating the resulting negative health impacts, whether caused by long-duration stays on the ISS or from long-term living in the low-gravity environment of Mars, were not there yet, said Seidler.

In his latest book, On the Future: Prospects for Humanity, cosmologist and astrophysicist Martin Rees addressed the issue of colonizing Mars rather succinctly:

By 2100 thrill seekers... may have established bases independent from the Earthon Mars, or maybe on asteroids. Elon Musk (born in 1971) of SpaceX says he wants to die on Marsbut not on impact. But dont ever expect mass emigration from Earth. And here I disagree strongly with Musk and with my late Cambridge colleague Stephen Hawking, who enthuse about rapid build-up of large-scale Martian communities. Its a dangerous delusion to think that space offers an escape from Earths problems. Weve got to solve these problems here. Coping with climate change may seem daunting, but its a doddle compared to terraforming Mars. No place in our solar system offers an environment even as clement as the Antarctic or the top of Everest. Theres no Planet B for ordinary risk-averse people.

Indeed, theres the whole terraforming issue to consider. By terraforming, scientists are referring to the hypothetical prospect of geoengineering a planet to make it habitable for humans and other life. For Mars, that would mean the injection of oxygen and other gases into the atmosphere to raise surface temperature and air pressure, among other interventions. A common argument in favor of colonizing Mars is that itll allow us to begin the process of transforming the planet to a habitable state. This scenario has been tackled by a number of science fiction authors, including Kim Stanley Robinson in his acclaimed Mars Trilogy. But as Friedman told Gizmodo, thats thousands of years in the making at least.

Briony Horgan, assistant professor of planetary science at Purdue University, said Martian terraforming is a pipedream, a prospect thats way beyond any kind of technology were going to have any time soon, she told Gizmodo.

Screenshot: Still from Total Recall (1990)

When it comes to terraforming Mars, theres also the logistics to consider, and the materials available to the geoengineers who would dare to embark upon such a multi-generational project. In their 2018 Nature paper, Bruce Jakosky and Christopher Edwards from the University of Colorado, Boulder sought to understand how much carbon dioxide would be needed to increase the air pressure on Mars to the point where humans could work on the surface without having to wear pressure suits, and to increase temperature such that liquid water could exist and persist on the surface. Jakosky and Edwards concluded that theres not nearly enough CO2 on Mars required for terraforming, and that future geoengineers would have to somehow import the required gases to do so.

To be clear, terraforming is not necessarily an impossibility, but the timeframes and technologies required preclude the possibility of sustaining large, vibrant colonies on Mars for the foreseeable future.

Until such time, an un-terraformed Mars will present a hostile setting for venturing pioneers. First and foremost theres the intense radiation to deal with, which will confront the colonists with a constant health burden.

Horgan said there are many big challenges to colonizing Mars, with radiation exposure being one of them. This is an issue that a lot of folks, including those at SpaceX, arent thinking about too clearly, she told Gizmodo. Living underground or in shielded bases may be an option, she said, but we have to expect that cancer rates will still be an order of magnitude greater given the added exposure over time.

You can only do so much with radiation protection, Horgan said. We could quantify the risks for about a year, but not over the super long term. The problem is that you cant stay in there [i.e. underground or in bases] forever. As soon as you go outside to do anything, youre in trouble, she said.

Horgan pointed to a recent Nature study showing that radiation on Mars is far worse than we thought, adding that we dont have the long-term solutions yet, unless you want to risk radiation illnesses. Depending on the degree of exposure, excessive radiation can result in skin burns, radiation sickness, cancer, and cardiovascular disease.

Friedman agrees that, in principle, we could create artificial environments on Mars, whether by building domes or underground dwellings. The radiation problem may be solvable, he said, but the problems are still huge, and in a sense anti-human.

Life in a Martian colony would be miserable, with people forced to live in artificially lit underground bases, or in thickly protected surface stations with severely minimized access to the outdoors. Life in this closed environment, with limited access to the surface, could result in other health issues related to exclusive indoor living, such as depression, boredom from lack of stimulus, an inability to concentrate, poor eyesight, and high blood pressurenot to mention a complete disconnect from nature. And like the International Space Station, Martian habitats will likely be a microbial desert, hosting only a tiny sample of the bacteria needed to maintain a healthy human microbiome.

Another issue has to do with motivation. As Friedman pointed out earlier, we dont see colonists living in Antarctica or under the sea, so why should we expect troves of people to want to live in a place thats considerably more unpleasant? It seems a poor alternative to living on Earth, and certainly a major step down in terms of quality of life. A strong case could even be made that, for prospective families hoping to spawn future generations of Martian colonists, its borderline cruelty.

And thats assuming humans could even reproduce on Mars, which is an open question. Casting aside the deleterious effects of radiation on the developing fetus, theres the issue of conception to consider in the context of living in a minimal gravity environment. We dont know how sperm and egg will act on Mars, or how the first critical stages of conception will occur. And most of all, we dont know how low gravity will affect the mother and fetus.

Seidler, an expert in human physiology and kinesiology, said the issue of human gestation on Mars is a troublesome unknown. The developing fetus, she said, is likely to sit higher up in the womb owing to the lower gravity, which will press upon the mothers diaphragm, making it hard for the mother to breathe. The low gravity may also confuse the gestational process, delaying or interfering with critical phases of the fetus development, such as the fetus dropping by week 39. On Earth, bones, muscles, the circulatory system, and other aspects of human physiology develop by working against gravity. Its possible that the human body might adapt to the low-gravity situation on Mars, but we simply dont know. An artificial womb might be a possible solution, but again, thats not something well have access to anytime soon, nor does it solve the low-gravity issue as it pertains to fetal development (unless the artificial womb is placed in a centrifuge to simulate gravity).

A strong case can be made that any attempt to procreate on Mars should be forbidden until more is known. Enforcing such a policy on a planet thats 34 million miles away at its closest is another question entirely, though one would hope that Martian societies wont regress to lawlessness and a complete disregard of public safety and established ethical standards.

For other colonists, the minimal gravity on Mars could result in serious health problems over the long term. Studies of astronauts who have participated in long-duration missions lasting about a year exhibit troubling symptoms, including bone and muscle loss, cardiovascular problems, immune and metabolic disorders, visual disorders, balance and sensorimotor problems, among many other health issues. These problems may not be as acute as those experienced on Mars, but again, we simply dont know. Perhaps after five or 10 or 20 years of constant exposure to low gravity, similar gravity-related disorders will set in.

Seidlers research into the effects of microgravity suggests its a distinct possibility.

Yes, there would be physiological and neural changes that would occur on Mars due to its partial-gravity environment, she told Gizmodo. Its not clear whether these changes would plateau at some point. My work has shown an upward shift of the brain within the skull in microgravity, some regions of gray matter increases and others that decrease, structural changes within the brains white matter, and fluid shifts towards the top of the head.

Seidler said some of these changes scale with the duration of microgravity exposure, from two weeks up to six months, but she hasnt looked beyond that.

Illustration: Cover of Martian Time Slip by Philip K. Dick. (1964, Ballantine Books)

Some of these effects would have to eventually plateauthere is a structural limit on the fluid volume that the skull can contain, for example, she said. And, the nervous system is very adaptable. It can learn how to control movements in microgravity despite the altered sensory inputs. But again, its unclear what the upper limits are.

The effects of living in partial gravity compared to microgravity may not be as severe, she said, but in either case, different sensory inputs are going into the brain, as theyre not loaded by weight in the way theyre used to. This can result in a poor sense of balance and compromised motor functions, but research suggests astronauts in microgravity eventually adapt.

There are a lot of questions still unanswered about how microgravity and partial gravity will affect human physiology, Seidler told Gizmodo. We dont yet understand the safety or health implications. More needs to be done.

Astronauts who return from long-duration missions have a rough go for the first few days back on Earth, experiencing nausea, dizziness, and weakness. Some astronauts, like NASAs Scott Kelly, never feel like their old selves again, including declines in cognitive test scores and altered gene function. Work by NASAs Scott Wood has shown that recovery time for astronauts is proportionate to the length of the missionthe longer the mission, the longer the recovery. Disturbingly, we have no data for microgravity exposure beyond a year or so, and its an open question as to the effects of low gravity on the human body after years, or even decades, of exposure.

With this in mind, its an open question as to how Martian colonists might fare upon a return visit to Earth. It might actually be a brutal experience, especially after having experienced years in a partial gravity environment. Children born on Mars (if thats even a possibility) might never be able to visit the planet where their species originated.

And these are the health issues we think might be a problem. A host of other problems are likely to exist, giving rise to Martian-specific diseases affecting our brains, bodies, and emotional well-being. The human lifespan on Mars is likely to be significantly less than it is on Earth, though again, we simply dont know.

Finally, theres the day-to-day survival to consider. Limited access to fundamental resources, like food and water, could place further constraints on a colonys ability to grow and thrive.

Establishing stable resources to live off for a long period of time is possible, but itll be tough, said Horgan. Well want to be close to water and water ice, but for that well have to go pretty far north. But the further north you go, the rougher the conditions get on the surface. The winters are cold, and theres less sunlight.

Colonists will also need stable food sources, and figure out a way to keep plants away from radiation. The regolith, or soil, on Mars is toxic, containing dangerous perchlorate chemicals, so that also needs to be avoided. To grow crops, colonists will likely build subterranean hydroponic greenhouses. This will require specialized lighting, genetically modified plants designed specifically for Mars, and plenty of water, the latter of which will be difficult to source on Mars.

People dont realize how complicated this is, said Horgan. Trying to think about establishing colonies to point of what we would consider safe will be a big challenge.

Technological solutions to these problems may exist, as are medical interventions to treat Martian-specific diseases. But again, nothing that we could possibly develop soon. And even if we do develop therapies to treat humans living on Mars, these interventions are likely to be limited in scope, with patients requiring constant care and attention.

As Martin Rees pointed out, Mars and other space environments are inherently hostile for humans, but as he wrote in his book,

[We] (and our progeny here on Earth) should cheer on the brave space adventurers, because they will have a pivotal role in spearheading the post-human future and determining what happens in the twenty-second century and beyond.

By post-human future, Rees is referring to a hypothetical future era in which humans have undergone extensive biological and cybernetic modifications such that they can no longer be classified as human. So while Mars will remain inaccessible to ordinary, run-of-the-mill Homo sapiens, the Red Planet could become available to those who dare to modify themselves and their progeny.

A possible solution is to radically modify human biology to make Martian colonists specially adapted to live, work, and procreate on the Red Planet. As Rees wrote in On the Future:

So, because they will be ill-adapted to their new habitat, the pioneer explorers will have a more compelling incentive than those of us on Earth to redesign themselves. Theyll harness the super-powerful genetic and cyborg technologies that will be developed in coming decades. These techniques will be, one hopes, heavily regulated on Earth, on prudential and ethical grounds, but settlers on Mars will be far beyond the clutches of the regulators. We should wish them good luck in modifying their progeny to adapt to alien environments. This might be the first step towards divergence into a new species. Genetic modification would be supplemented by cyborg technologyindeed there may be a transition to fully inorganic intelligences. So, its these space-faring adventurers, not those of us comfortably adapted to life on Earth, who will spearhead the posthuman era.

Indeed, modifying humans to make them adaptable to living on Mars will require dramatic changes.

Our DNA would have to be tailored specifically to enable a long, healthy life on Mars, including genetic tweaks for good muscle, bone, and brain health. These traits could be made heritable, such that Martian colonists could pass down the characteristics to their offspring. In cases where biology is not up for the task, scientists could use cybernetic enhancements, including artificial neurons or synthetic skin capable of fending off dangerous UV rays. Nanotechnology in the form of molecular machines could deliver medicines, perform repair work, and eliminate the need for breathing and eating. Collectively, these changes would result in an entirely new species of humanone built specifically for Mars.

Synthetic biologist and geneticist Craig Venter believes this is a distinct possibilityand a tantalizing prospect. While delivering a keynote address at a NASA event in 2010, Venter said, Not too many things excite my imagination as trying to design organismseven peoplefor long-term space flight, and perhaps colonization of other worlds.

Like some of the other solutions proposed, this wont happen any time soon, nor will it be easy. And it may not even happen. Which brings a rather discouraging prospect to mind: We may be stuck on Earth.

As Friedman pointed out, this carries some rather heavy existential and philosophical implications. If humans cant make it to Mars, it means were destined to be a single-planet species, he said. Whats more, it suggests extraterrestrial civilizations might be in the same boat, and that the potential for intelligent life to spread throughout the universe is very, very gloomy, he told Gizmodo.

If we cant make it to a nearby planet with an atmosphere, water, and a stable surfacewhich in principle suggests we could do itthen certainly were not going to make it much beyond that, said Friedman. But if were doomed to be a single-planet species, then we need to recognize both psychologically and technologically that were going to have live within the limits of Earth.

Which is a good point. That we may eventually become an interplanetary or interstellar species remains an open question. We must work to make this futuristic prospect a reality, but until then, we have to make sure that Earththe only habitable planet we know ofremains that way.

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Ghost in the Shell (1995) – IMDb

Posted: December 28, 2022 at 11:41 pm

That anime could be this good. I'd thought I'd seen good anime when a friend brought me 'Akira', but this one is just awesome.

It has everything that one could want. An interesting plot, deep thoughts, nice dialog, hot chicks, cool action, neat tech, and animation that puts everything to shame which has ever been produced in the western world.

Now when I watch anime I usually expect (and dread) the scene which will explain something about the fundamental nature of life, the universe, or whatever. This is (the only part) where 'Akira' failed. This is where 'Final Fantasy' went down the drain. But 'Ghost in the Shell' shines here brightly.

While watching it for the first time I had always this nagging feeling that some such scene would turn up and ruin the truly stunning visuals. Not so. After the '2501' monologue the story really comes together and you start to be eager for story development instead of just looking for the many details and extravagant action sequences.

A word on the story: No, you will probably not 'get' the story the first time around. Especially in the English version you will have to make the connection between MoFA, MF, MFA and Ministry of Foreign Affairs, that is easy to get confused over. The whole storyline might not be quite as complicated as understanding some 'Aeon Fluxx' episodes, but you have to rewatch the story to get a feel for the interconnection of the different players - especially if you are not familiar with the Ghost in the Shell literature. The story,thank god, is not dumbed down for the average viewer. This is what makes rewatching it so enjoyable. It has also some nice reflections on what it means to be human - things you may ask of yourself after the movie finishes ('Who knows what's inside our heads. Have you ever seen your own brain?').

The animation is superb, and used to unusual effect. The details are exquisite - especially cloth effects and character motions. There are a few scenes that only have music or an accentuating sound effect in the background while the animators show off their full artistic talent. But it's not just show-off time, the visuals are tied in with the subject and leave the viewer time to reflect on the philosophical/sociological messages (like showing the cybernetic heroine look at tailors' dummies)

In short: This is a must see for anybody who likes anime. Definitely a movie for grown-ups, though, because the graphic violence may disturb kids and the philosophy will go right over their heads.

10/10

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The Transhumanist Agenda Behind Bidens Executive Order on Advancing …

Posted: at 11:41 pm

President Bidens Executive Order on Advancing Biotechnology and Biomanufacturing Innovation for a Sustainable, Safe and Secure American Bioeconomy establishes a fast-tracked pipeline of mRNA shots and other gene therapies that will further the transhumanist agenda.

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Story at a glance:

On Sept. 12, President Biden signed the Executive Order on Advancing Biotechnology and Biomanufacturing Innovation for a Sustainable, Safe and Secure American Bioeconomy.

Specified in that order is the development of genetic engineering technologies and techniques to be able to write circuitry for cells and predictably program biology in the same way in which we write software and program computers, as well as genetic technologies to unlock the power of biological data using computing tools and artificial intelligence.

Additionally, obstacles for commercialization will be reduced so that innovative technologies and products can reach markets faster.

What we have here is, in a nutshell, the creation of a fast-tracked mRNA pipeline.

When, in June, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) quietly implemented a Future Framework scheme to deliver reformulated COVID-19 boosters without additional testing, I predicted that this no testing required formula would spread beyond COVID-19 shots.

And, according to this executive order, thats exactly whats about to happen.

In early September, the FDA also put out medically false and misleading COVID-19 booster campaign messages that prove weve officially entered the era of transhumanism:

Its time to install that update! #UpdateYourAntibodies with a new #COVID19 booster.

Dont be shocked! You can now #RechargeYourImmunity with an updated #COVID19 booster.

Is this the death knell to allopathic medicine?

Historically, gene therapies have had to jump through extra hoops, which is why so few exist on the market. As of 2021, there were 20 gene therapies commercially available.

The worlds first gene therapy trial didnt begin until 1990, so this is still a very new field.

The entire gene therapy field actually collapsed overnight in 1999, when a teenage trial participant died from side effects.

An FDA investigation concluded research had moved too fast and that safety had not been put first.

Progress, thanks to increased caution, slowed from there on.

Such caution is now being thrown to the wind, and its not difficult to predict there will be disastrous ramifications.

Millions will die from poorly tested gene therapies and, eventually, medical research and allopathic medicine will both cease to exist, as survivors vow to have nothing to do with that murderous cabal ever again.

The only way they might be able to keep going is if they are in control of peoples brain function and/or able to force drugs under threat of death, or worse neither of which is impossible at this point, shockingly enough.

In the meantime, were looking at a cornucopia of mRNA shots coming our way.

mRNA flu shots are in the works

Not surprisingly, mRNA flu shots are in the works. While we probably wont see mRNA flu shots during the 2022/2023 winter season, theres every reason to expect theyll be rolled out next year.

On Sept. 14, Pfizer initiated a Phase 3 study, which will test a quadrivalent mRNA-based flu shot on 25,000 American adults.

Pfizer is also exploring mRNA technology that uses self-amplifying RNA for potential use in the future.

Moderna began its Phase 3 mRNA flu jab trial in early June. Its also working on mRNA shots for the respiratory syncytial virus and cytomegalovirus, which is in the herpes family, as well as a SARS-CoV-2-influenza combination shot.

Ultimately, Moderna wants to create an annual mRNA shot that covers all of the top 10 viruses that result in hospitalizations each year.

Its current flu jab candidate, mRNA-1010, encodes for the hemagglutinin, or HA, glycoproteins of four different influenza strains, including influenza A/H1N1, A/H3N2, influenza B/Yamagata and B/Victoria.

According to Moderna:

HA is a major influenza surface glycoprotein that is considered an important target to generate broad protection against influenza and is the primary target of currently available influenza vaccines.

The transhumanist agenda

Over the past three years, Ive written several articles exploring the transhumanist agenda, which all these mRNA shots and genetic technologies are part and parcel of.

Basically, the goal of the transhumanist movement is to transcend biology through technology and to meld human biology with technology and artificial intelligence.

In September 2020, I posted a video with Dr. Carrie Madej (below), in which she suggested we were standing at the crossroads of transhumanism, thanks to the fast-approaching release of mRNA COVID-19 shots.

Since these shots are designed to manipulate your biology, they have the potential to also alter the biology of the entire human race.

Nearly two years later, we still dont know the extent to which they might be doing that, yet more fast-tracked and untested gene therapies are on the way.

One reason why its important to know for certain whether synthetic RNA ends up creating permanent changes in the genome is because synthetic genes are patented.

If they cause permanent changes, humans will contain patented genes, and that brings up very serious questions, seeing how patents have owners and owners have patent rights.

U.S. defense department aims to create human cyborgs

The hydrogel used to preserve the mRNA can also contain nanobots to create a bioelectric interface capable of connecting to a smartphone or other interface.

Novel technologies that measure biological data, such as blood sugar, are based on this. Such technologies will, of course, have immediate ramifications for our privacy.

Who will collect and have access to all this data? Who will be responsible for protecting it? How will it be used?

Also, if your cellphone can receive information from your body, what information can your body receive from it, or from other sources? Could transmissions affect your mood? Your behavior? Your physical function? Your thoughts or memories?

So far, it doesnt appear as though the COVID-19 shots have these kinds of capabilities built-in, but we do know for a fact that militaries around the world are exploring and working toward such capabilities. In fact, its an arms race in its own right.

In his Sept. 14, Substack article, Human Cyborgs Are Just the Beginning, Dr. Robert Malone reviewed several of those plans.

Certain report titles alone tell the story, such as the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) Biotechnologies for Health and Human Performance Councils report, Cyborg Soldier 2050: Human/Machine Fusion and the Implications for the Future of the DOD.

It doesnt leave a whole lot to the imagination, does it?

According to the assessment abstract:

The primary objective of this effort was to forecast and evaluate the military implications of machines that are physically integrated with the human body to augment and enhance human performance over the next 30 years.

This report summarizes this assessment and findings; identifies four potential military-use cases for new technologies in this area; and assesses their impact upon the DOD organizational structure, warfighter doctrine and tactics, and interoperability with U.S. allies and civil society.

Human augmentation technologies deemed technically feasible by 2050 at the latest include ocular enhancements to improve sight and situational awareness, optogenetic bodysuits to restore or improve muscular strength and control, auditory enhancements and neural enhancement of the brain for two-way data transfers and brain-to-brain communication.

Changing what it means to be human

In The Plan to Turn You Into a Genetically Edited Cyborg, I covered another shockingly dystopian report by the U.K. Ministry of Defense and the German Bundeswehr Office for Defense Planning, published in May 2021.

That report, Human Augmentation The Dawn of a New Paradigm, a Strategic Implications Project, reviews the scientific goals of the U.K. and German defense ministries, and they basically mirror that of the U.S. DOD.

On page 12 of the report, the concept of the human body as a platform is described, and how various parts of the human platform can be augmented.

For example:

They list several different ways to influence the physical, psychological and social performance of the human platform, including genetics (germ line and somatic modification), synthetic biology, invasive (internal) and noninvasive (external) brain interfaces, passive and powered exoskeletons, drugs and nanotechnology, neurostimulation, augmented reality technologies such as external holograms or glasses with built-in artificial intelligence and sensory augmentation technologies such as external sensors or implants.

As noted in this report, Human augmentation has the potential to change the meaning of what it means to be a human. This is precisely what Klaus Schwab, founder and executive chairman of the World Economic Forum (WEF), has stated is the goal of The Fourth Industrial Revolution.

WEF has been at the center of global affairs for more than 40 years, and if you take the time to dive into WEFs Fourth Industrial Revolution material, you realize that its all about transhumanism.

Its about the merger of man and machine.

This is a dystopian future that WEF and its global allies are actively trying to implement, whether humanity at large agrees with it or not.

Importantly, the Human Augmentation report readily admits that human augmentation can directly enhance behavior.

And, if you think these reports are just brain fodder for geeks in uniforms, think again.

The U.K. Defense and Security Accelerator is currently, right now, accepting proposals for human augmentation technologies such as those listed above.

Grants of 70,000 euros ($74,000), will be given to proposals that can provide proof of concept.

Were already being programmed to accept transhumanism

Both the DODs Cyborg Soldier report and the British/German Human Augmentation reports discuss the fact that human augmentation will inevitably widen already existing disparities, inequalities and inequities, and therefore, efforts should be undertaken to reverse negative cultural narratives of enhancement technologies.

In other words, dont let people come to the conclusion that human cyborgs are a bad idea, because at worst that might prevent their development, and at best, itll pitch regular people against the augmented elite, making their efforts to rule the plebs more difficult.

As noted by Malone, Once again, we are being played before we even know what the playing field looks like.

Disturbingly, considering how nontransparent governments have been so far, its not inconceivable that technologies capable of influencing thoughts and behaviors would be used on populations without informing anyone, which makes the list of potential risks one takes with each new mRNA injection even longer than it already is.

But we dont need to be genetically re-engineered or have nanobots introduced into our brains to be at risk of outside manipulation. Thats already happening through noninvasive means.

Control capabilities go far beyond Orwells 1984 vision

In a November 2019 interview with CNN, history professor Yuval Noah Harari, a Klaus Schwab disciple, stated that humans are already hackable, meaning the technology exists by which a company or government can know you better than you know yourself, and this knowledge can be used for both good and ill.

According to Harari, the available capabilities already go far beyond Orwells 1984 authoritarian vision, and its only going to become more powerful from here.

He predicted that algorithms will increasingly be used to make decisions that historically have been made by humans, either yourself or someone else, including whether or not youll be hired for a particular job, whether youll be granted a loan, what scholastic curriculum you will follow and even whom you will marry.

To learn more about the larger issues of transhumanism and the race to merge man with machine and artificial intelligence, check out the Truthstream Media video below.

For example, there are even ongoing attempts to upload the human mind into the cloud, ultimately creating a form of digital hive mind where everyone communicates via Wi-Fi telepathy.

This, despite the fact we still do not fully understand what the mind actually is, or where its located.

Final thoughts

I dont know what it will take to prevent the dystopian post-human world envisioned by Schwab and his technocratic minions, but I suspect education would be a cornerstone of such an endeavor.

In order for there to be a resistance, enough people need to be aware of what the plan is, and where were actually being led with all these novel therapies and inventions.

In the shorter term, its crucial to realize that the fast-tracking of genetic engineering technologies and techniques to be able to write circuitry for cells and predictably program biology in the same way in which we write software and program computers means theyre going to cut corners.

Loads of them.

Testing is basically going to be done on the population at large, just as theyve done with the COVID-19 jabs.

The results of such experimentation are relatively predictable. People will be seriously injured and many will die.

So, think long and hard before you agree to take any of these forthcoming gene therapies.

Originally published by Mercola.

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of Children's Health Defense.

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Posted: November 8, 2022 at 11:20 pm

The Missing Plan for Alien First Contact to Pro-and-Anti-UFO Factions in U.S. Government (Planet Earth Report)  The Daily Galaxy --Great Discoveries Channel

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Biden Signs Executive Order Designed to Unleash "Transhumanist Hell" on …

Posted: November 7, 2022 at 10:29 am

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Important article first published on September 19, 2022

***

If anyone needed proof that the powers pushing the levers behind the mindless moron who sits in the Oval Office are fully on board with the World Economic Forum/United Nations agenda of biomedical tyranny and transhumanism, look no further than the executive order that Joe Biden signed on Monday, September 12.

By quietly getting Bidens signature on this document, his handlers may have given us the most ominous sign yet that we stand on the threshold of a technocratic one-world beast system. Prepare to make your stand because its about to get much more intense.

This documents Orwellian title, Executive Order on Advancing Biotechnology and Biomanufacturing Innovation for a Sustainable, Safe, and Secure American Bioeconomy, will assure that its significance will fly right over the heads of 99 percent of the media, even the conservative media.

They will read it and yawn. I plead with everyone reading this article to please not make that same mistake.

Because of the arcane scientific language in which this document is written, even most of those who take the time to read and study it (I assure you Biden did not) will not fully grasp what is being ordered by the White House.

Thats where we strive to help.

Karen Kingston, a former Pfizer employee and current analyst for the pharmaceutical and medical-device industries, helps us decipher whats going on in this executive order.

Kingston stated in a Twitter post:

Let me read between the lines for America. Bidens Sept. 12, 2022, executive order declares that Americans must surrender all human rights that stand in the way of transhumanism. Clinical trial safety standards and informed consent will be eradicated as they stand in the way of universally unleashing gene-editing technologies needed to merge humans with A.I. In order to achieve the societal goals of the New World Order, crimes against humanity are not only legal, but mandatory. (emphasis added)

Here is one of the most disturbing excerpts from Bidens executive order:

We need to develop genetic engineering technologies and techniques to be able to write circuitry for cells and predictably program biology in the same way in which we write software and program computersincluding through computing tools and artificial intelligence

Patrick Wood, an economist and author of several books on technocracy, has been following the transhumanist and global technocracy movements for four decades. He told me that Kingston is not overstating the issue.

He said this E.O. is proof that the executive branch is now owned lock, stock and barrel by the biomedical/pharmaceutical industry. It will be Katy bar the door from here on out.

The transhumanists within Big Pharma have completely taken over government policy and taxpayer funds to promote their own anti-human agenda of hacking the software of life, Wood told me. It also clearly demonstrates who has the power, and who sets the policies in America.

The mRNA injections that have already gone into the bodies of at least 70 percent of adults in the U.S. (and a smaller percentage of its children) mark the gateway to transhumanism. We have been told this by Kingston as well as by the late Dr. Zev Zelenko and Dr. Robert Malone, a co-inventor of the mRNA platform.

LeoHohmann.com was one of the first sites to blow the whistle on Modernas former chief medical officer, Tal Zaks, who told the world straight up in December 2017 that We have hacked the software of life, and that this mRNA gene-editing biotechnology would be incorporated into vaccines to treat and prevent all manner of illnesses. Weve seen how well they work, with millions getting sick and tens of thousands dying after getting two or more doses of the Covid injections offered up by Moderna and Pfizer. With the FDA and CDC now totally on board, this mRNA technology is being included in scores of other vaccines, including flu shots.

The September 12 executive order was no doubt put in place as back up for the continued experimentation on the human population, and I expect the vaccine industry will exploit it to the max. Soon we will see the return of vax mandates, this time more ferociously policed and enforced than before.

This E.O. may also have been timed at least partly in anticipation of the new pandemic treaty that the Biden administration is hoping to get passed through the United Nations World Health Organization next year. This treaty will transfer sovereignty over matters of health emergencies from the national level to the WHO.

Wood said the E.O.s intended consequences is to push the frontier of genetic modification of all living things and especially humans. He believes this will ultimately spark the biggest public backlash in modern history.

Biden pledges not only funding but an all-of-government transformation to support this anti-human scheme from top to bottom, Wood writes. It also automatically blocks any agency or department from dissent.

Below are just a few of the highlights quoted directly from the document:

What this means is that human beings will be data mined for their most personal possession, their DNA and genomic properties, and the government will offer no protection.

It will actually be encouraged and seen as a green light for biomedical practitioners worldwide. It is the goal of the technocratic proprietors of Agenda 2030 to catalogue, map out, and monitor every living thing on earth.

This was spelled out in the early 2000s by the late researcher Rosa Koire and put into book form in 2011 with Behind the Green Mask: U.N. Agenda 21. Koire was a Democrat, but she understood that the takedown of America and indeed every nation of the formerly free world, would not be accomplished by the left or the right but by supranational globalists with an allegiance to no particular nation. In fact, these globalists detest the nation-state model that has dominated the world for thousands of years. Their goal is global governance and they say it out loud in their own documents.

Have no fear.

Do not be intimidated.

Truth will not be defeated.

Humanity will prevail against these anti-human eugenicist monsters because we have living souls and are created in the image of a Holy God with individual free wills.

Because of that, we humans are capable of having a personal relationship with Jesus Christ and the one and only triune God of the Bible. Those who take the bait of the globalists and submit to the world system will in essence be handing over their humanity in exchange for empty promises of safety and security. They will become transhumans, thus foregoing, at some point, their ability to connect with God. Thats a very big step and a decision that will face every human being sooner or later as this technology ramps up. Your very soul will depend on the choice you make. Will you follow God or will you follow man?

Above all, this is a spiritual battle.

We must continue to expose the sinister transhumanist agenda that these globalist predators did their best to keep hidden within a scientific vernacular that they know will wow and mystify the average person. We have decoded it for you in this article from two of the best Christian experts on the topic available in the world today Karen Kingston and Patrick Wood.

*

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Leo Hohmann is an investigative reporter on globalism, Christianity, Islam, Judaism and where politics, culture and religion intersect.

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Biden transhumanist executive order: We need to program biology …

Posted: at 10:29 am

Mon Sep 19, 2022 - 8:35 pm EDTTue Sep 20, 2022 - 7:26 pm EDT

(LifeSiteNews) The Biden administration issued an executive order calling for biotechnology that can predictably program biology in the same way in which we write software and program computers, a transhumanist practice, in service of human health.

As an example of such biotechnology, Executive Order 14081 included by implication the COVID-19 mRNA injections, citing the COVID-19 pandemic as demonstrating the vital role of biotechnology in developing and producing life-saving vaccines that protect Americans and the world.

The mRNA jabs are an example of what has been described as the most prominent area of biotechnology: The production of ostensibly therapeutic proteins and other drugs through genetic engineering. However, while the proteins produced by the mRNA shot were touted as beneficial, evidence has emerged that they are toxic to humans. In fact, as StatNews noted in 2016, mRNA experiments were abandoned by several pharma groups before the COVID-19 outbreak over concerns about toxicity.

In support of its proposal to use biotechnology to aid human health, the order called upon the Secretary of Health and Human Services (HHS) to submit a report assessing how to use biotechnology to achieve medical breakthroughs, reduce the overall burden of disease, and improve health outcomes.

RELATED: Biden admin reportedly pressuring FBI to target conservatives in bid to justify anti-MAGA rhetoric

Efforts to program biology in human beings not only present further potential dangers to health, such as those shown by the mRNA shots, but they would also increasingly open up the possibilities of eugenic enhancement, which is why gene editing has often been described as a Pandoras Box, potentially creating classes of genetic haves and have-nots in society.

In fact, the use of such technology has been underway for years. For example, the gene editing tool CRISPR has been used in China to alter the DNA of babies to apparently eliminate susceptibility to HIV.

According to Bidens executive order, while the power of biotechnology is most vivid at the moment in the context of human health, it can also be used to achieve our climate and energy goals, improve food security and sustainability, secure our supply chains, and grow the economy.

Biden accordingly calls for the use of biotech to sequeste[r] carbon and reduc[e] greenhouse gas emissions, as well as increas[e] and protec[t] agricultural yields; protec[t] against plant and animal pests and diseases; and cultivat[e] alternative food sources.

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The G20 meeting this October will see the most powerful nations in the world - the U.S., Canada, the U.K., the E.U., Australia, India, China, Russia and Brazil among others -discuss climate policies that are already affecting billions of people around the world.

Thispowerful cadre of international leaderswants the world torun on solar and wind power, forcing an end tothe use of gas, oil and nuclear power, as well as crushing beef farmers because of supposed methane emissions.

But the harsh impact of such policiesis already being felt, with energy blackouts and soaring inflation hammering people around the world, making it beyond timefor all of us tospeak out.

SIGN: Tell G20 leaders that their radical climate policies are making basic foods,fuel, heating and electricityincreasingly unaffordable for normal citizens.

As western leaders turn off the oil spigots and impose draconian restrictions on farmers, we've all experienced the pain of increased prices, not least at the pump and the grocery store.

This inflation was entirely avoidable if onlyour politicians prioritized food and energy security over climate theories, but instead they have succumbed to radical environmentalists whose agenda would cripple the livelihoods and living standards of muchof the globe.

Communities all around you are feeling the weight of crushing price hikes, which will soon reach your own food isles and gas pumps if it hasn't already.

The effects of inflation are being felt in the developing world most, as fuel and food prices sky rocket, making even worse poverty an inevitabilty for hundreds of millions of people.

Reality will hit home for us soon.

The harshest effects of energy shortages will be felt this winter in the west, when our leaders' decisions to cut oil supplies and reject Russian natural gaswill:

The media are already preparing people for rolling blackouts. States like California and countries like England arewarning citizens that they face severe electricity and gas shortages.

Now is the time to speak out and be part of a movement that can prevent this disaster spreading.

SIGN the petition calling on international leaders to abandon their reckless energy agenda and return the world to economic stability.

The entire climate change industry is based on models that have been consistently inaccuratefor decades, with Al Gore among the most infamous prophets of doom to be proven wrong.

In 2009 Gore told theCOP15 climate change conference in Copenhagen that the North Polewould be ice-free by 2014, a claim that remains wildly off the mark.

Al Gore is not alone in getting things wrong however, as this brief timeline ofscaremongering headlines proves:

The world needs to wake-up to what's really happening: our lives are being upended on the basis of climate theories and models that have been consistently wrong for decades.

It's time to stop the scaremongering and push back against the radical agenda of international elites.

SIGN & SHARE: Tell G20 leaders that their radical climate policies are making basic foods,fuel, heating and electricityincreasingly unaffordable for normal citizens.

Thank you.

As an example of biotech that could reduce carbon dioxide, commonly demonized as a major culprit of global warming, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has proposed solutions such as the use of trees and microbes to draw excess Co2 out of the atmosphere. The U.S. Department of Energy has also proposed the use of a process to convert waste gases into important chemicals, which captures more carbon gases than it releases.

More controversial is the use of biotech to assist farming, such as by increasing crop yields and protecting against disease through the use of genetically modified (GM) foods, which have been shown to have toxic effects on the human body.

Raising further privacy-related questions is Executive Order 14081s establishment of a Data for the Bioeconomy Initiative, which calls for biological data sets, to include genomic (gene-related) information deemed critical for societal advances.

The Executive Order further calls for a plan to fill any data gaps and make new and existing public data findable and accessible. This proposal raises the question of whether and how individuals genomic information might be publicly disclosed, and whether it would be done so only with informed consent.

Bidens call for the programming of biology the way we program software, if applied to humans, would facilitate transhumanists vision of the creation of superhumans through various kinds of technology, including biotechnology.

In anticipation of major transhumanist developments, including biotech advances, World Economic Forum (WEF) adviser Yuval Noah Harari has gone so far as to declare that we are one of the last generations of homo sapiens, and that within a century or two, earth will be dominated by entities that are more different from us than we are different from chimpanzees.

Well soon have the power to re-engineer our bodies and brains, whether it is with genetic engineering or by directly connecting brains to computers and these technologies are developing at breakneck speed, Harari explained to CNNs Anderson Cooper on 60 Minutes in October 2021.

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Meaning of life – Wikipedia

Posted: at 10:29 am

Philosophical and spiritual question concerning the significance of living or existence in general

The meaning of life, or the answer to the question: "What is the meaning of life?", pertains to the significance of living or existence in general. Many other related questions include: "Why are we here?", "What is life all about?", or "What is the purpose of existence?" There have been many proposed answers to these questions from many different cultural and ideological backgrounds. The search for life's meaning has produced much philosophical, scientific, theological, and metaphysical speculation throughout history. Different people and cultures believe different things for the answer to this question.

The meaning of life can be derived from philosophical and religious contemplation of, and scientific inquiries about existence, social ties, consciousness, and happiness. Many other issues are also involved, such as symbolic meaning, ontology, value, purpose, ethics, good and evil, free will, the existence of one or multiple gods, conceptions of God, the soul, and the afterlife. Scientific contributions focus primarily on describing related empirical facts about the universe, exploring the context and parameters concerning the "how" of life. Science also studies and can provide recommendations for the pursuit of well-being and a related conception of morality. An alternative, humanistic approach poses the question, "What is the meaning of my life?"

Questions about the meaning of life have been expressed in a broad variety of ways, including:

These questions have resulted in a wide range of competing answers and explications, from scientific theories, to philosophical, theological, and spiritual explanations...

Many members of the scientific community and philosophy of science communities think that science can provide the relevant context, and set of parameters necessary for dealing with topics related to the meaning of life. In their view, science can offer a wide range of insights on topics ranging from the science of happiness to death anxiety. Scientific inquiry facilitates this through nomological investigation into various aspects of life and reality, such as the Big Bang, the origin of life, and evolution, and by studying the objective factors which correlate with the subjective experience of meaning and happiness.

Researchers in positive psychology study empirical factors that lead to life satisfaction,[15] full engagement in activities,[16] making a fuller contribution by utilizing one's personal strengths,[17] and meaning based on investing in something larger than the self.[18] Large-data studies of flow experiences have consistently suggested that humans experience meaning and fulfillment when mastering challenging tasks and that the experience comes from the way tasks are approached and performed rather than the particular choice of task. For example, flow experiences can be obtained by prisoners in concentration camps with minimal facilities, and occur only slightly more often in billionaires. A classic example[16] is of two workers on an apparently boring production line in a factory. One treats the work as a tedious chore while the other turns it into a game to see how fast she can make each unit and achieves flow in the process.

Neuroscience describes reward, pleasure, and motivation in terms of neurotransmitter activity, especially in the limbic system and the ventral tegmental area in particular. If one believes that the meaning of life is to maximize pleasure and to ease general life, then this allows normative predictions about how to act to achieve this. Likewise, some ethical naturalists advocate a science of moralitythe empirical pursuit of flourishing for all conscious creatures.

Experimental philosophy and neuroethics research collects data about human ethical decisions in controlled scenarios such as trolley problems. It has shown that many types of ethical judgment are universal across cultures, suggesting that they may be innate, whilst others are culture-specific. The findings show actual human ethical reasoning to be at odds with most philosophical theories, for example consistently showing distinctions between action by cause and action by omission which would be absent from utility-based theories. Cognitive science has theorized about differences between conservative and liberal ethics and how they may be based on different metaphors from family life such as strong fathers vs nurturing mother models.

Neurotheology is a controversial field which tries to find neural correlates and mechanisms of religious experience. Some researchers have suggested that the human brain has innate mechanisms for such experiences and that living without using them for their evolved purposes may be a cause of imbalance. Studies have reported conflicting results on correlating happiness with religious belief and it is difficult to find unbiased meta-analyses.[19][20]

Sociology examines value at a social level using theoretical constructs such as value theory, norms, anomie, etc. One value system suggested by social psychologists, broadly called Terror Management Theory, states that human meaning is derived from a fundamental fear of death, and values are selected when they allow us to escape the mental reminder of death.

Alongside this, there are a number of theories about the way in which humans evaluate the positive and negative aspects of their existence and thus the value and meaning they place on their lives. For example, depressive realism posits an exaggerated positivity in all except those experiencing depressive disorders who see life as it truly is, and David Benatar theorises that more weight is generally given to positive experiences, providing bias towards an over-optimistic view of life.

Emerging research shows that meaning in life predicts better physical health outcomes. Greater meaning has been associated with a reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease,[21] reduced risk of heart attack among individuals with coronary heart disease,[22] reduced risk of stroke,[23] and increased longevity in both American and Japanese samples.[24] In 2014, the British National Health Service began recommending a five-step plan for mental well-being based on meaningful lives, whose steps are:[25]

The exact mechanisms of abiogenesis are unknown: notable hypotheses include the RNA world hypothesis (RNA-based replicators) and the iron-sulfur world hypothesis (metabolism without genetics). The process by which different lifeforms have developed throughout history via genetic mutation and natural selection is explained by evolution.[26] At the end of the 20th century, based upon insight gleaned from the gene-centered view of evolution, biologists George C. Williams, Richard Dawkins, and David Haig, among others, concluded that if there is a primary function to life, it is the replication of DNA and the survival of one's genes.[27][28] Responding to an interview question from Richard Dawkins about "what it is all for", James Watson stated "I don't think we're for anything. We're just the products of evolution."[29]

Though scientists have intensively studied life on Earth, defining life in unequivocal terms is still a challenge.[30][31] Physically, one may say that life "feeds on negative entropy"[32][33][34] which refers to the process by which living entities decrease their internal entropy at the expense of some form of energy taken in from the environment.[35][36][37] Biologists generally agree that lifeforms are self-organizing systems which regulate their internal environments as to maintain this organized state, metabolism serves to provide energy, and reproduction causes life to continue over a span of multiple generations. Typically, organisms are responsive to stimuli and genetic information changes from generation to generation, resulting in adaptation through evolution; this optimizes the chances of survival for the individual organism and its descendants respectively.[38]

Non-cellular replicating agents, notably viruses, are generally not considered to be organisms because they are incapable of independent reproduction or metabolism. This classification is problematic, though, since some parasites and endosymbionts are also incapable of independent life. Astrobiology studies the possibility of different forms of life on other worlds, including replicating structures made from materials other than DNA.

Though the Big Bang theory was met with much skepticism when first introduced, it has become well-supported by several independent observations.[39] However, current physics can only describe the early universe from 1043 seconds after the Big Bang (where zero time corresponds to infinite temperature); a theory of quantum gravity would be required to understand events before that time. Nevertheless, many physicists have speculated about what would have preceded this limit, and how the universe came into being.[40] For example, one interpretation is that the Big Bang occurred coincidentally, and when considering the anthropic principle, it is sometimes interpreted as implying the existence of a multiverse.[41]

The ultimate fate of the universe, and implicitly humanity, is hypothesized as one in which biological life will eventually become unsustainable, such as through a Big Freeze, Big Rip, or Big Crunch.

Theoretical cosmology studies many alternative speculative models for the origin and fate of the universe beyond the Big Bang theory. A recent trend has been models of the creation of 'baby universes' inside black holes, with our own Big Bang being a white hole on the inside of a black hole in another parent universe.[42] Many-worlds theories claim that every possibility of quantum mechanics is played out in parallel universes.

The nature and origin of consciousness and the mind itself are also widely debated in science. The explanatory gap is generally equated with the hard problem of consciousness, and the question of free will is also considered to be of fundamental importance. These subjects are mostly addressed in the fields of cognitive science, neuroscience (e.g. the neuroscience of free will) and philosophy of mind, though some evolutionary biologists and theoretical physicists have also made several allusions to the subject.[43][44]

Reductionistic and eliminative materialistic approaches, for example the Multiple Drafts Model, hold that consciousness can be wholly explained by neuroscience through the workings of the brain and its neurons, thus adhering to biological naturalism.[44][45][46]

On the other hand, some scientists, like Andrei Linde, have considered that consciousness, like spacetime, might have its own intrinsic degrees of freedom, and that one's perceptions may be as real as (or even more real than) material objects.[47] Hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime explain consciousness in describing a "space of conscious elements",[47] often encompassing a number of extra dimensions.[48] Electromagnetic theories of consciousness solve the binding problem of consciousness in saying that the electromagnetic field generated by the brain is the actual carrier of conscious experience; there is however disagreement about the implementations of such a theory relating to other workings of the mind.[49][50] Quantum mind theories use quantum theory in explaining certain properties of the mind. Explaining the process of free will through quantum phenomena is a popular alternative to determinism.

Based on the premises of non-materialistic explanations of the mind, some have suggested the existence of a cosmic consciousness, asserting that consciousness is actually the "ground of all being".[9][51][52] Proponents of this view cite accounts of paranormal phenomena, primarily extrasensory perceptions and psychic powers, as evidence for an incorporeal higher consciousness. In hopes of proving the existence of these phenomena, parapsychologists have orchestrated various experiments, but successful results might be due to poor experimental controls and might have alternative explanations.[53][54][55][56]

Reker and Wong define personal meaning as the "cognizance of order, coherence and purpose in one's existence, the pursuit and attainment of worthwhile goals, and an accompanying sense of fulfillment" (p.221).[57] In 2016, Martela and Steger defined meaning as coherence, purpose, and significance.[58] In contrast, Wong has proposed a four-component solution to the question of meaning in life,[59][60] with the four components purpose, understanding, responsibility, and enjoyment (PURE):

Thus, a sense of significance permeates every dimension of meaning, rather than standing as a separate factor.

Although most psychology researchers consider meaning in life as a subjective feeling or judgment, most philosophers (e.g., Thaddeus Metz, Daniel Haybron) propose that there are also objective, concrete criteria for what constitutes meaning in life.[61][62] Wong has proposed that whether life is meaningful depends not only on subjective feelings but, more importantly, on whether a person's goal-striving and life as a whole is meaningful according to some objective normative standard.[60]

The philosophical perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies that explain life in terms of ideals or abstractions defined by humans.

Plato, a pupil of Socrates, was one of the earliest, most influential philosophers. His reputation comes from his idealism of believing in the existence of universals. His theory of forms proposes that universals do not physically exist, like objects, but as heavenly forms. In the dialogue of the Republic, the character of Socrates describes the Form of the Good. His theory on justice in the soul relates to the idea of happiness relevant to the question of the meaning of life.

In Platonism, the meaning of life is in attaining the highest form of knowledge, which is the Idea (Form) of the Good, from which all good and just things derive utility and value.

Aristotle, an apprentice of Plato, was another early and influential philosopher, who argued that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge (such as metaphysics and epistemology), but is general knowledge. Because it is not a theoretical discipline, a person had to study and practice in order to become "good"; thus if the person were to become virtuous, he could not simply study what virtue is, he had to be virtuous, via virtuous activities. To do this, Aristotle established what is virtuous:

Every skill and every inquiry, and similarly, every action and choice of action, is thought to have some good as its object. This is why the good has rightly been defined as the object of all endeavor [...]Everything is done with a goal, and that goal is "good".

Yet, if action A is done towards achieving goal B, then goal B also would have a goal, goal C, and goal C also would have a goal, and so would continue this pattern, until something stopped its infinite regression. Aristotle's solution is the Highest Good, which is desirable for its own sake. It is its own goal. The Highest Good is not desirable for the sake of achieving some other good, and all other "goods" desirable for its sake. This involves achieving eudaemonia, usually translated as "happiness", "well-being", "flourishing", and "excellence".

What is the highest good in all matters of action? To the name, there is an almost complete agreement; for uneducated and educated alike call it happiness, and make happiness identical with the good life and successful living. They disagree, however, about the meaning of happiness.

Antisthenes, a pupil of Socrates, first outlined the themes of Cynicism, stating that the purpose of life is living a life of Virtue which agrees with Nature. Happiness depends upon being self-sufficient and master of one's mental attitude; suffering is the consequence of false judgments of value, which cause negative emotions and a concomitant vicious character.

The Cynical life rejects conventional desires for wealth, power, health, and fame, by being free of the possessions acquired in pursuing the conventional.[63][64] As reasoning creatures, people could achieve happiness via rigorous training, by living in a way natural to human beings. The world equally belongs to everyone, so suffering is caused by false judgments of what is valuable and what is worthless per the customs and conventions of society.

Aristippus of Cyrene, a pupil of Socrates, founded an early Socratic school that emphasized only one side of Socrates's teachingsthat happiness is one of the ends of moral action and that pleasure is the supreme good; thus a hedonistic world view, wherein bodily gratification is more intense than mental pleasure. Cyrenaics prefer immediate gratification to the long-term gain of delayed gratification; denial is unpleasant unhappiness.[65][66]

Epicurus, a pupil of the Platonist Pamphilus of Samos, taught that the greatest good is in seeking modest pleasures, to attain tranquility and freedom from fear (ataraxia) via knowledge, friendship, and virtuous, temperate living; bodily pain (aponia) is absent through one's knowledge of the workings of the world and of the limits of one's desires. Combined, freedom from pain and freedom from fear are happiness in its highest form. Epicurus' lauded enjoyment of simple pleasures is quasi-ascetic "abstention" from sex and the appetites:

"When we say ... that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do, by some, through ignorance, prejudice or willful misrepresentation. By pleasure, we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish, and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul."[67]

The Epicurean meaning of life rejects immortality and mysticism; there is a soul, but it is as mortal as the body. There is no afterlife, yet, one need not fear death, because "Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us."[68]

Zeno of Citium, a pupil of Crates of Thebes, established the school which teaches that living according to reason and virtue is to be in harmony with the universe's divine order, entailed by one's recognition of the universal logos, or reason, an essential value of all people. The meaning of life is "freedom from suffering" through apatheia (Gr: ), that is, being objective and having "clear judgement", not indifference.

Stoicism's prime directives are virtue, reason, and natural law, abided to develop personal self-control and mental fortitude as means of overcoming destructive emotions. The Stoic does not seek to extinguish emotions, only to avoid emotional troubles, by developing clear judgment and inner calm through diligently practiced logic, reflection, and concentration.

The Stoic ethical foundation is that "good lies in the state of the soul", itself, exemplified in wisdom and self-control, thus improving one's spiritual well-being: "Virtue consists in a will which is in agreement with Nature."[68] The principle applies to one's personal relations thus: "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy".[68]

The Enlightenment and the colonial era both changed the nature of European philosophy and exported it worldwide. Devotion and subservience to God were largely replaced by notions of inalienable natural rights and the potentialities of reason, and universal ideals of love and compassion gave way to civic notions of freedom, equality, and citizenship. The meaning of life changed as well, focusing less on humankind's relationship to God and more on the relationship between individuals and their society. This era is filled with theories that equate meaningful existence with the social order.

Classical liberalism is a set of ideas that arose in the 17th and 18th centuries, out of conflicts between a growing, wealthy, propertied class and the established aristocratic and religious orders that dominated Europe. Liberalism cast humans as beings with inalienable natural rights (including the right to retain the wealth generated by one's own work), and sought out means to balance rights across society. Broadly speaking, it considers individual liberty to be the most important goal,[69] because only through ensured liberty are the other inherent rights protected.

There are many forms and derivations of liberalism, but their central conceptions of the meaning of life trace back to three main ideas. Early thinkers such as John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Adam Smith saw humankind beginning in the state of nature, then finding meaning for existence through labor and property, and using social contracts to create an environment that supports those efforts.

Kantianism is a philosophy based on the ethical, epistemological, and metaphysical works of Immanuel Kant. Kant is known for his deontological theory where there is a single moral obligation, the "Categorical Imperative", derived from the concept of duty. Kantians believe all actions are performed in accordance with some underlying maxim or principle, and for actions to be ethical, they must adhere to the categorical imperative.

Simply put, the test is that one must universalize the maxim (imagine that all people acted in this way) and then see if it would still be possible to perform the maxim in the world without contradiction. In Groundwork, Kant gives the example of a person who seeks to borrow money without intending to pay it back. This is a contradiction because if it were a universal action, no person would lend money anymore as he knows that he will never be paid back. The maxim of this action, says Kant, results in a contradiction in conceivability (and thus contradicts perfect duty).

Kant also denied that the consequences of an act in any way contribute to the moral worth of that act, his reasoning being that the physical world is outside one's full control and thus one cannot be held accountable for the events that occur in it.

The origins of utilitarianism can be traced back as far as Epicurus, but, as a school of thought, it is credited to Jeremy Bentham,[70] who found that "nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure"; then, from that moral insight, he derived the Rule of Utility: "that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people". He defined the meaning of life as the "greatest happiness principle".

Jeremy Bentham's foremost proponent was James Mill, a significant philosopher in his day, and father of John Stuart Mill. The younger Mill was educated per Bentham's principles, including transcribing and summarizing much of his father's work.[71]

Nihilism suggests that life is without objective meaning.

Friedrich Nietzsche characterized nihilism as emptying the world, and especially human existence, of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, and essential value; succinctly, nihilism is the process of "the devaluing of the highest values".[72] Seeing the nihilist as a natural result of the idea that God is dead, and insisting it was something to overcome, his questioning of the nihilist's life-negating values returned meaning to the Earth.[73]

To Martin Heidegger, nihilism is the movement whereby "being" is forgotten, and is transformed into value, in other words, the reduction of being to exchange value.[72] Heidegger, in accordance with Nietzsche, saw in the so-called "death of God" a potential source for nihilism:

If God, as the supra-sensory ground and goal, of all reality, is dead; if the supra-sensory world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory, and above it, its vitalizing and up-building power, then nothing more remains to which Man can cling, and by which he can orient himself.[74]

The French philosopher Albert Camus asserts that the absurdity of the human condition is that people search for external values and meaning in a world which has none and is indifferent to them. Camus writes of value-nihilists such as Meursault,[75] but also of values in a nihilistic world, that people can instead strive to be "heroic nihilists", living with dignity in the face of absurdity, living with "secular saintliness", fraternal solidarity, and rebelling against and transcending the world's indifference.[76]

The current era has seen radical changes in both formal and popular conceptions of human nature. The knowledge disclosed by modern science has effectively rewritten the relationship of humankind to the natural world. Advances in medicine and technology have freed humans from significant limitations and ailments of previous eras;[77] and philosophyparticularly following the linguistic turnhas altered how the relationships people have with themselves and each other are conceived. Questions about the meaning of life have also seen radical changes, from attempts to reevaluate human existence in biological and scientific terms (as in pragmatism and logical positivism) to efforts to meta-theorize about meaning-making as a personal, individual-driven activity (existentialism, secular humanism).

Pragmatism originated in the late-19th-century US, concerning itself (mostly) with truth, and positing that "only in struggling with the environment" do data, and derived theories, have meaning, and that consequences, like utility and practicality, are also components of truth. Moreover, pragmatism posits that anything useful and practical is not always true, arguing that what most contributes to the most human good in the long course is true. In practice, theoretical claims must be practically verifiable, i.e. one should be able to predict and test claims, and, that, ultimately, the needs of humankind should guide human intellectual inquiry.

Pragmatic philosophers suggest that the practical, useful understanding of life is more important than searching for an impractical abstract truth about life. William James argued that truth could be made, but not sought.[78][79] To a pragmatist, the meaning of life is discoverable only via experience.

Theists believe God created the universe and that God had a purpose in doing so. Theists also hold the view that humans find their meaning and purpose for life in God's purpose in creating. Some theists further hold that if there were no God to give life ultimate meaning, value, and purpose, then life would be absurd.[80]

According to existentialism, each person creates the essence (meaning) of their life; life is not determined by a supernatural god or an earthly authority, one is free. As such, one's ethical prime directives are action, freedom, and decision, thus, existentialism opposes rationalism and positivism. In seeking meaning to life, the existentialist looks to where people find meaning in life, in course of which using only reason as a source of meaning is insufficient; this gives rise to the emotions of anxiety and dread, felt in considering one's free will, and the concomitant awareness of death. According to Jean-Paul Sartre, existence precedes essence; the (essence) of one's life arises only after one comes to existence.

Sren Kierkegaard spoke about a "leap", arguing that life is full of absurdity, and one must make his and her own values in an indifferent world. One can live meaningfully (free of despair and anxiety) in an unconditional commitment to something finite and devotes that meaningful life to the commitment, despite the vulnerability inherent to doing so.[81]

Arthur Schopenhauer answered: "What is the meaning of life?" by stating that one's life reflects one's will, and that the will (life) is an aimless, irrational, and painful drive. Salvation, deliverance, and escape from suffering are in aesthetic contemplation, sympathy for others, and asceticism.[82][83]

For Friedrich Nietzsche, life is worth living only if there are goals inspiring one to live. Accordingly, he saw nihilism ("all that happens is meaningless") as without goals. He stated that asceticism denies one's living in the world; stated that values are not objective facts, that are rationally necessary, universally binding commitments: our evaluations are interpretations, and not reflections of the world, as it is, in itself, and, therefore, all ideations take place from a particular perspective.[73]

"... in spite of or in defiance of the whole of existence he wills to be himself with it, to take it along, almost defying his torment. For to hope in the possibility of help, not to speak of help by virtue of the absurd, that for God all things are possibleno, that he will not do. And as for seeking help from any otherno, that he will not do for all the world; rather than seek the help he would prefer to be himselfwith all the tortures of hell if so it must be."

Sren Kierkegaard, The Sickness Unto Death[84]

In absurdist philosophy, the Absurd arises out of the fundamental disharmony between the individual's search for meaning and the apparent meaninglessness of the universe. As beings looking for meaning in a meaningless world, humans have three ways of resolving the dilemma. Kierkegaard and Camus describe the solutions in their works, The Sickness Unto Death (1849) and The Myth of Sisyphus (1942):

Per secular humanism, the human species came to be by reproducing successive generations in a progression of unguided evolution as an integral expression of nature, which is self-existing.[86][87] Human knowledge comes from human observation, experimentation, and rational analysis (the scientific method), and not from supernatural sources; the nature of the universe is what people discern it to be.[86] Likewise, "values and realities" are determined "by means of intelligent inquiry"[86] and "are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience", that is, by critical intelligence.[88][89] "As far as we know, the total personality is [a function] of the biological organism transacting in a social and cultural context."[87]

People determine human purpose without supernatural influence; it is the human personality (general sense) that is the purpose of a human being's life which humanism seeks to develop and fulfill:[86] "Humanism affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity".[88] Humanism aims to promote enlightened self-interest and the common good for all people. It is based on the premises that the happiness of the individual person is inextricably linked to the well-being of all humanity, in part because humans are social animals who find meaning in personal relations and because cultural progress benefits everybody living in the culture.[87][88]

The philosophical subgenres posthumanism and transhumanism (sometimes used synonymously) are extensions of humanistic values. One should seek the advancement of humanity and of all life to the greatest degree feasible and seek to reconcile Renaissance humanism with the 21st century's technoscientific culture. In this light, every living creature has the right to determine its personal and social "meaning of life".[90]

From a humanism-psychotherapeutic point of view, the question of the meaning of life could be reinterpreted as "What is the meaning of my life?"[91] This approach emphasizes that the question is personaland avoids focusing on cosmic or religious questions about overarching purpose. There are many therapeutic responses to this question. For example, Viktor Frankl argues for "Dereflection", which translates largely as cease endlessly reflecting on the self; instead, engage in life. On the whole, the therapeutic response is that the question itselfwhat is the meaning of life?evaporates when one is fully engaged in life. (The question then morphs into more specific worries such as "What delusions am I under?"; "What is blocking my ability to enjoy things?"; "Why do I neglect loved-ones?".)[92]

Logical positivists ask: "What is the meaning of life?", "What is the meaning in asking?"[93][94] and "If there are no objective values, then, is life meaningless?"[95] Ludwig Wittgenstein and the logical positivists said:[citation needed] "Expressed in language, the question is meaningless"; because, in life the statement the "meaning of x", usually denotes the consequences of x, or the significance of x, or what is notable about x, etc., thus, when the meaning of life concept equals "x", in the statement the "meaning of x", the statement becomes recursive, and, therefore, nonsensical, or it might refer to the fact that biological life is essential to having a meaning in life.

The things (people, events) in the life of a person can have meaning (importance) as parts of a whole, but a discrete meaning of (the) life, itself, aside from those things, cannot be discerned. A person's life has meaning (for themselves, others) as the life events resulting from their achievements, legacy, family, etc., but, to say that life, itself, has meaning, is a misuse of language, since any note of significance, or of consequence, is relevant only in life (to the living), so rendering the statement erroneous. Bertrand Russell wrote that although he found that his distaste for torture was not like his distaste for broccoli, he found no satisfactory, empirical method of proving this:[68]

When we try to be definite, as to what we mean when we say that this or that is "the Good," we find ourselves involved in very great difficulties. Bentham's creed, that pleasure is the Good, roused furious opposition, and was said to be a pig's philosophy. Neither he nor his opponents could advance any argument. In a scientific question, evidence can be adduced on both sides, and, in the end, one side is seen to have the better caseor, if this does not happen, the question is left undecided. But in a question, as to whether this, or that, is the ultimate Good, there is no evidence, either way; each disputant can only appeal to his own emotions, and employ such rhetorical devices as shall arouse similar emotions in others ... Questions as to "values"that is to say, as to what is good or bad on its own account, independently of its effectslie outside the domain of science, as the defenders of religion emphatically assert. I think that, in this, they are right, but, I draw the further conclusion, which they do not draw, that questions as to "values" lie wholly outside the domain of knowledge. That is to say, when we assert that this, or that, has "value", we are giving expression to our own emotions, not to a fact, which would still be true if our personal feelings were different.[96]

Postmodernist thoughtbroadly speakingsees human nature as constructed by language, or by structures and institutions of human society. Unlike other forms of philosophy, postmodernism rarely seeks out a priori or innate meanings in human existence, but instead focuses on analyzing or critiquing given meanings in order to rationalize or reconstruct them. Anything resembling a "meaning of life", in postmodernist terms, can only be understood within a social and linguistic framework and must be pursued as an escape from the power structures that are already embedded in all forms of speech and interaction. As a rule, postmodernists see awareness of the constraints of language as necessary to escaping those constraints, but different theorists take different views on the nature of this process: from a radical reconstruction of meaning by individuals (as in deconstructionism) to theories in which individuals are primarily extensions of language and society, without real autonomy (as in poststructuralism).

According to naturalistic pantheism, the meaning of life is to care for and look after nature and the environment.

Embodied cognition uses the neurological basis of emotion, speech, and cognition to understand the nature of thought. Cognitive neuropsychology has identified brain areas necessary for these abilities, and genetic studies show that the gene FOXP2 affects neuroplasticity which underlies language fluency. George Lakoff, a professor of cognitive linguistics and philosophy, advances the view that metaphors are the usual basis of meaning, not the logic of verbal symbol manipulation.[citation needed] Computers use logic programming to effectively query databases but humans rely on a trained biological neural network. Postmodern philosophies that use the indeterminacy of symbolic language to deny definite meaning ignore those who feel they know what they mean and feel that their interlocutors know what they mean.[citation needed] Choosing the correct metaphor results in enough common understanding to pursue questions such as the meaning of life.[citation needed] Improved knowledge of brain function should result in better treatments producing healthier brains. When combined with more effective training, a sound personal assessment as to the meaning of one's life should be straightforward.[citation needed]

The Mohist philosophers believed that the purpose of life was universal, impartial love. Mohism promoted a philosophy of impartial caringa person should care equally for all other individuals, regardless of their actual relationship to him or her.[97] The expression of this indiscriminate caring is what makes a man a righteous being in Mohist thought. This advocacy of impartiality was a target of attack by the other Chinese philosophical schools, most notably the Confucians who believed that while love should be unconditional, it should not be indiscriminate. For example, children should hold a greater love for their parents than for random strangers.

Confucianism recognizes human nature in accordance with the need for discipline and education. Because humankind is driven by both positive and negative influences, Confucianists see a goal in achieving virtue through strong relationships and reasoning as well as minimizing the negative. This emphasis on normal living is seen in the Confucianist scholar Tu Wei-Ming's quote, "We can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence."[98]

The Legalists believed that finding the purpose of life was a meaningless effort. To the Legalists, only practical knowledge was valuable, especially as it related to the function and performance of the state.

The religious perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies that explain life in terms of an implicit purpose not defined by humans. According to the Charter for Compassion, signed by many of the world's leading religious and secular organizations, the core of religion is the golden rule of 'treat others as you would have them treat you'. The Charter's founder, Karen Armstrong, quotes the ancient Rabbi Hillel who suggested that 'the rest is commentary'. This is not to reduce the commentary's importance, and Armstrong considers that its study, interpretation, and ritual are the means by which religious people internalize and live the golden rule.

In the Judaic world view, the meaning of life is to elevate the physical world ('Olam HaZeh') and prepare it for the world to come ('Olam HaBa'), the messianic era. This is called Tikkun Olam ("Fixing the World"). Olam HaBa can also mean the spiritual afterlife, and there is debate concerning the eschatological order. However, Judaism is not focused on personal salvation, but on communal (between man and man) and individual (between man and God) spiritualised actions in this world.

Judaism's most important feature is the worship of a single, incomprehensible, transcendent, one, indivisible, absolute Being, who created and governs the universe. Closeness with the God of Israel is through a study of His Torah, and adherence to its mitzvot (divine laws). In traditional Judaism, God established a special covenant with a people, the people of Israel, at Mount Sinai, giving the Jewish commandments. Torah comprises the written Pentateuch and the transcribed oral tradition, further developed through the generations. The Jewish people are intended as "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation"[99] and a "light to the Nations", influencing the other peoples to keep their own religio-ethical Seven Laws of Noah. The messianic era is seen as the perfection of this dual path to God.

Jewish observances involve ethical and ritual, affirmative, and prohibitive injunctions. Modern Jewish denominations differ over the nature, relevance, and emphases of mitzvot. Jewish philosophy emphasises that God is not affected or benefited, but the individual and society benefit by drawing close to God. The rationalist Maimonides sees the ethical and ritual divine commandments as a necessary, but insufficient preparation for philosophical understanding of God, with its love and awe.[100] Among fundamental values in the Torah are pursuit of justice, compassion, peace, kindness, hard work, prosperity, humility, and education.[101][102] The world to come,[103] prepared in the present, elevates man to an everlasting connection with God.[104] Simeon the Righteous says, "The world stands on three things: on Torah, on worship, and on acts of loving kindness." The prayer book relates, "Blessed is our God who created us for his honor ... and planted within us everlasting life." Of this context, the Talmud states, "Everything that God does is for the good." including suffering.

The Jewish mystical Kabbalah gives complementary esoteric meanings of life. As well as Judaism providing an immanent relationship with God (personal theism), in Kabbalah the spiritual and physical creation is a paradoxical manifestation of the immanent aspects of God's Being (panentheism), related to the Shekhinah (Divine feminine). Jewish observance unites the sephirot (Divine attributes) on high, restoring harmony to creation. In Lurianic Kabbalah, the meaning of life is the messianic rectification of the shattered sparks of God's persona, exiled in physical existence (the Kelipot shells), through the actions of Jewish observance.[105] Through this, in Hasidic Judaism the ultimate essential "desire" of God is the revelation of the Omnipresent Divine essence through materiality, achieved by a man from within his limited physical realm when the body will give life to the soul.[106]

Christianity has its roots in Judaism, and shares much of the latter faith's ontology. Its central beliefs derive from the teachings of Jesus Christ as presented in the New Testament. Life's purpose in Christianity is to seek divine salvation through the grace of God and intercession of Christ.[108] The New Testament speaks of God wanting to have a relationship with humans both in this life and the life to come, which can happen only if one's sins are forgiven.[109]

In the Christian view, humankind was made in the Image of God and perfect, but the Fall of Man caused the progeny of the First Parents to inherit Original Sin and its consequences. Christ's passion, death and resurrection provide the means for transcending that impure state (Romans 6:23). The good news that this restoration from sin is now possible is called the gospel. The specific process of appropriating salvation through Christ and maintaining a relationship with God varies between different denominations of Christians, but all rely on faith in Christ and the gospel as the fundamental starting point. Salvation through faith in God is found in Ephesians 2:89 "[8]For by grace you have been saved through faith; and that not of yourselves, it is the gift of God; [9]not as a result of works, that no one should boast." (NASB; 1973). The gospel maintains that through this belief, the barrier that sin has created between man and God is destroyed, thereby allowing believers to be regenerated by God and to instill in them a new heart after God's own will with the ability to live righteously before him. This is what the term saved almost always refer to.

In Reformed theology it is believed the purpose of life is to glorify God. In the Westminster Shorter Catechism, an extremely important creed for Reformed Christians,[110] the first question is: "What is the chief end of Man?" (that is, "What is Man's main purpose?"). The answer is: "Man's chief end is to glorify God, and enjoy him forever". God requires one to obey the revealed moral law, saying: "Love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your strength, and with all your mind; and your neighbour as yourself".[111] The Baltimore Catechism answers the question "Why did God make you?" by saying "God made me to know Him, to love Him, and to serve Him in this world, and to be happy with Him forever in heaven."[112]

The Apostle Paul also answers this question in his speech on the Areopagus in Athens: "And He has made from one blood every nation of men to dwell on all the face of the earth, and has determined their preappointed times and the boundaries of their dwellings, so that they should seek the Lord, in the hope that they might grope for Him and find Him, though He is not far from each one of us."[113]

Catholicism's way of thinking is better expressed through the Principle and Foundation of St. Ignatius of Loyola: "The human person is created to praise, reverence, and serve God Our Lord, and by doing so, to save his or her soul. All other things on the face of the earth are created for human beings in order to help them pursue the end for which they are created. It follows from this that one must use other created things, in so far as they help towards one's end, and free oneself from them, in so far as they are obstacles to one's end. To do this, we need to make ourselves indifferent to all created things, provided the matter is subject to our free choice and there is no other prohibition. Thus, as far as we are concerned, we should not want health more than illness, wealth more than poverty, fame more than disgrace, a-long life more than a short one, and similarly for all the rest, but we should desire and choose only what helps us more towards the end for which we are created."[114]

Mormonism teaches that the purpose of life on Earth is to gain knowledge and experience and to have joy.[115] Mormons believe that humans are literally the spirit children of God the Father, and thus have the potential to progress to become like Him. Mormons teach that God provided his children the choice to come to Earth, which is considered a crucial stage in their developmentwherein a mortal body, coupled with the freedom to choose, makes for an environment to learn and grow.[115] The Fall of Adam is not viewed as an unfortunate or unplanned cancellation of God's original plan for a paradise; rather, the opposition found in mortality is an essential element of God's plan because the process of enduring and overcoming challenges, difficulties, and temptations provides opportunities to gain wisdom and strength, thereby learning to appreciate and choose good and reject evil.[116][117] Because God is just, he allows those who were not taught the gospel during mortality to receive it after death in the spirit world,[118] so that all of his children have the opportunity to return to live with God, and reach their full potential.

A recent alternative Christian theological discourse interprets Jesus as revealing that the purpose of life is to elevate our compassionate response to human suffering;[119] nonetheless, the conventional Christian position is that people are justified by belief in the propitiatory sacrifice of Jesus' death on the cross.

In Islam, humanity's ultimate purpose is to worship their creator, Allah (English: The God), through his signs, and be grateful to him through sincere love and devotion. This is practically shown by following the divine guidelines revealed in the Qur'an and the tradition of the Prophet (with the exception of Quranists). Earthly life is a test, determining one's position of closeness to Allah in the hereafter. A person will either be close to him and his love in Jannah (Paradise) or far away in Jahannam (Hell).

For Allah's satisfaction, via the Qur'an, all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, his angels, his messengers, and in the "Day of Judgment".[120] The Qur'an describes the purpose of creation as follows: "Blessed be he in whose hand is the kingdom, he is powerful over all things, who created death and life that he might examine which of you is best in deeds, and he is the almighty, the forgiving." (Qur'an 67:12) and "And I (Allh) created not the jinn and mankind except that they should be obedient (to Allah)." (Qur'an 51:56). Obedience testifies to the oneness of God in his lordship, his names, and his attributes. Terrenal life is a test; how one acts (behaves) determines whether one's soul goes to Jannat (Heaven) or to Jahannam (Hell).[121][citation needed] However, on the day of Judgement the final decision is of Allah alone.[122]

The Five Pillars of Islam are duties incumbent to every Muslim; they are: Shahadah (profession of faith); Salat (ritual prayer); Zakat (charity); Sawm (fasting during Ramadan), and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca).[123] They derive from the Hadith works, notably of Sahih Al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. The five pillars are not mentioned directly in the Quran.

Beliefs differ among the Kalam. The Sunni and the Ahmadiyya concept of pre-destination is divine decree;[124] likewise, the Shi'a concept of pre-destination is divine justice; in the esoteric view of the Sufis, the universe exists only for God's pleasure; Creation is a grand game, wherein Allah is the greatest prize.

The Sufi view of the meaning of life stems from the hadith qudsi that states "I (God) was a Hidden Treasure and loved to be known. Therefore I created the Creation that I might be known." One possible interpretation of this view is that the meaning of life for an individual is to know the nature of God, and the purpose of all of creation is to reveal that nature and to prove its value as the ultimate treasure, that is God. However, this hadith is stated in various forms and interpreted in various ways by people, such, as 'Abdu'l-Bah of the Bah Faith, and in Ibn'Arab's Fu al-ikam.[126]

The Bah Faith emphasizes the unity of humanity.[127] To Bahs, the purpose of life is focused on spiritual growth and service to humanity. Human beings are viewed as intrinsically spiritual beings. People's lives in this material world provide extended opportunities to grow, to develop divine qualities and virtues, and the prophets were sent by God to facilitate this.[128][129]

Hinduism is a religious category including many beliefs and traditions. Since Hinduism was the way of expressing meaningful living for a long time before there was a need for naming it as a separate religion, Hindu doctrines are supplementary and complementary in nature, generally non-exclusive, suggestive, and tolerant in content.[130] Most believe that the tman (spirit, soul)the person's true selfis eternal.[131] In part, this stems from Hindu beliefs that spiritual development occurs across many lifetimes, and goals should match the state of development of the individual. There are four possible aims to human life, known as the purusharthas (ordered from least to greatest): (i) Kma (wish, desire, love and sensual pleasure), (ii) Artha (wealth, prosperity, glory), (iii) Dharma (righteousness, duty, morality, virtue, ethics), encompassing notions such as ahimsa (non-violence) and satya (truth) and (iv) Moksha (liberation, i.e. liberation from Sasra, the cycle of reincarnation).[132][133][134]

In all schools of Hinduism, the meaning of life is tied up in the concepts of karma (causal action), sansara (the cycle of birth and rebirth), and moksha (liberation). Existence is conceived as the progression of the tman (similar to the western concept of a soul) across numerous lifetimes, and its ultimate progression towards liberation from karma. Particular goals for life are generally subsumed under broader yogas (practices) or dharma (correct living) which are intended to create more favorable reincarnations, though they are generally positive acts in this life as well. Traditional schools of Hinduism often worship Devas which are manifestations of Ishvara (a personal or chosen God); these Devas are taken as ideal forms to be identified with, as a form of spiritual improvement.

In short, the goal is to realize the fundamental truth about oneself. This thought is conveyed in the Mahvkyas ("Tat Tvam Asi" (thou art that), "Aham Brahmsmi", "Prajnam Brahma" and "Ayam tm Brahma" (This tman is Brahman)).

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Meaning of life - Wikipedia

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